Uncontrolled copy not subject to amendment Fundamental Principles

Uncontrolled copy not subject to amendment Fundamental Principles of Airmanship Learning Outcome 1 Features of an Airfield Version 2. 0 OCT 2014

Objectives • Understand Airfield Layouts • Know how runways are numbered • Know how runways and taxiways are marked – by day and night • Know how approach lights guide an aircraft into land

Types of Airfield • Grass Airfield • Triangular Patterned Runway • Main Instrument Runway Landing Direction It is important for aircraft to land into wind (or as close as possible into wind) to ensure the aircraft touches down and stops within the length of the runway. If an aircraft lands with a tail wind it will be travelling faster over the ground than its airspeed and may not be able to stop within the length of the runway.

Wind Speed 20 Knots Airspeed 80 Knots Ground Speed = 60 Knots

1. Grass Airfield

1. Grass airfields? Advantages: • Cheap to build • No designated runway • Aircraft can take off in any direction Disadvantages: • Susceptible to wet weather • Aircraft can bog down • Would not normally support large aircraft

2. Triangular Patterned Airfield

2. Triangle pattern airfields? Advantages: • Longer runway – for heavy or large aircraft • Three runway directions – into wind no problem • Aircraft easier to control on the ground – designated taxiways • More difficult to attack Disadvantages: • More costly to build • Harder to repair if attacked

3. Modern Main Instrument Runway

3. Modern Main Instrument Runway Usually the longest runaway on the airfield with instrument and radar approaches available. A secondary runway is also available. This will normally be shorter than the main runway and will have limited approach aids.

Major Airport Logan International Boston, USA.

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Control Tower This building is centrally located on the airfield with good visibility of the whole airfield and the airspace around. The Control Tower houses various controllers who control all aircraft, vehicular and pedestrian traffic. It also houses the communications and radar equipment used by the airfield.

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Aerodrome Identification Symbol This is a 2 or 3 letter identifier for the airfield which is marked on the ground in large letters. Each airfield has it’s own identifier. Aerodrome Identification Beacon This is a red signal light that flashes vertically the morse code for the aerodrome identification symbol. Normally only used at night. Both allow an aircraft flying overhead to identify the airfield.

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Runway Threshold The area at the beginning of a runway that the pilot of an aircraft aims at to touch down safely.

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Holding Points A line across the taxiway, either side of the runway threshold, which aircraft are not allowed to cross without Air Traffic Control permission.

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Operational Readiness Platform An area by the runway threshold where Quick Readiness Aircraft (QRA) can be parked to give the shortest time available from scramble to take-off. ORP’s RAF Leuchars

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Windsock A visual aid to pilots to allow them to see what direction the wind is coming from and to give an idea of the strength of the wind. When the wind blows them horizontal, most windsocks indicate that the wind is 25 knots or greater.

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Barrier A large wire net that can be raised to arrest the forward motion of an aircraft that has landed with brake failure.

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Arrestor Gear This is a heavy duty wire which stretches across the runway and is supported by rubber doughnut shaped rings which hold the wire clear of the ground. The ends of the wire attached to hydraulic pistons which give resistance to movement if the wire is pulled.

Some fighter aircraft are equipped with an arrestor hook attached to the rear of the fuselage. In the case of brake failure the hook can be lowered and will collect the wire of the arrestor and so brake the aircraft to a halt.

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Sterile Area If there is an obstruction near the threshold of a runway which cannot be moved, such as a railway line, a new threshold is designated further down the runway which allows a new glide path to give adequate clearance from the obstruction. The area between the normal threshold and the displaced threshold is known as a sterile area and is marked with large white inverted ‘V’s.

Sterile Area Displaced Threshold Glidepath To Displaced Threshold Sterile Area RUNWAY Normal Threshold Normal Glidepath Train On Railway Line Causing Obstruction

Modern Main Instrument Runway Threshold

Sterile Area

Aircraft are vulnerable to attack if lined up!

Aircraft Dispersal (Battle of Britain 1940)

Hardened Aircraft Shelter (HAS) 2004

Exterior of Hardened Aircraft Shelter

Damaged HAS in Iraq 2003 Modern weapons can penetrate concrete before exploding.

QRA Take Off Quick Reaction Aircraft scramble.

Runways numbered by Magnetic Compass Bearing

Runway 22 heading South West Runway 04 (Reciprocal) heading North East

Runways numbered by Magnetic Compass Bearing

Runway 22 is between heading 216° and 225 °

Air Traffic Control

Runway and Taxiway Markings • Runways marked in white • Taxiways marked in yellow

Taxi way markings - Yellow

Runway Threshold

Threshold Markings Displacement Markings Sterile Area Taxiway

Airfield Lighting Any obstacle to flight on an airfield will be marked by a RED light.

Taxiway Lighting Green is Taxiway centreline marking. Blue is Taxiway edge marking, only positioned on dangerous corners These green lights indicate an approaching runway exit. Orange is runway guard lights, warning pilots of an approaching runway Red is the stop bar, which means an aircraft cannot cross it White is the runway centreline.

Airfield Approach Lights PAPIs (Red/White) Threshold (Green) Low On Glidepath High On Glidepath Approach Lights (White)

White Runway lights Threshold Green Lights Red Obstruction Lights Sterile Area

Precision Approach Path Indicators (PAPIs) Threshold Lights High Visibility “T” Approach Lights

Lining up on Approach

Displaced threshold runway 13 at old Hong Kong airfield of Kai Tak

Landing on Runway 15 – Birmingham Airport

Landing on Runway 15 – Birmingham Airport

Why are taxiway lights and markings so important?

Objectives • Understand Airfield Layouts • Know how runways are numbered • Know how runways and taxiways are marked – by day and night • Know how approach lights guide an aircraft into land

Any questions?

Questions What does “HAS” stand for? Hardened Aircraft Shelter. What colour are obstruction lights? Red. What colour are threshold lights? Green. How are taxiways marked in daylight? Yellow Markings. What colours are taxiway lights? Yellow, Green and Blue. What is used on an airfield to show wind direction? Windsock. How are runways numbered? By Magnetic Heading. True or False: Pilots will usually choose to take off with the wind behind them. False. What is a “Sterile Area”? An area on the runway that aircraft cannot land on. How is a Sterile Area marked? Inverted white ‘V’s.