THIS CD HAS BEEN PRODUCED FOR TEACHERS TO

THIS CD HAS BEEN PRODUCED FOR TEACHERS TO USE IN THE CLASSROOM. IT IS A CONDITION OF THE USE OF THIS CD THAT IT BE USED ONLY BY THE PEOPLE FROM SCHOOLS THAT HAVE PURCHASED THE CD ROM FROM DIALOGUE EDUCATION. (THIS DOES NOT PROHIBIT ITS USE ON A SCHOOL’S INTRANET) Critical Thinking Argument Mapping Weasel Words Fallacies (See Separate Fallacies Presentation) Dialogue Education Update 3

Contents • • • Page 3 - An example of straw man fallacy…. mapped Pages 4 - What is an argument? Pages 6 to 10 - How to map and argument? Page 11 - Weasel words Page 12 - What is a weasel word? Pages 14 to 15 - Examples of weasel words Page 16 - Examples of weasel words in Business Page 17 - Weasel word bingo Page 18 - A video example of Weasel words in politics Page 18 to 21 Difference between Euphemism, Vagueness and Ambiguity • Page 22 Wesel Word Bingo • Page 23 You Tube Video • Page 24 - Bibliography

A Rationale map demonstrating the Straw man fallacy

Argument Map • An Argument map is a visual representation of the structure of an argument in informal logic.

Argument Maps • Argument Maps are often used in the teaching of reasoning and critical thinking, and can support the analysis of pros and cons when deliberating over wicked problems.

Argument Mapping • An argument map is a diagram that captures the logical structure of a simple or complex argument. In the simplest possible case, we have a single premise supporting a single conclusion. Consider this argument : • Life is short, and so we should seize every moment. This can be represented in an argument map as follows:

Linked Argument Mapping Let us now look at another example: • Paris is in France, and France is in Europe. So obviously Paris is in Europe. Here is the corresponding argument map:

Convergent Argument Mapping • Note that the two premises are connected together before linking to the conclusion. This merging of the links indicate that the two premises are co-premises which work together in a single argument to support the conclusion. In other words, they do not provide independent reasons for accepting the conclusion. Without one of the premises, the other premise would fail to support the conclusion. • This should be contrasted with the following example where the premises are not co-premises. They provide independent reasons for supporting the conclusion: • [1] Smoking is unhealthy, since [2] it can cause cancer. Furthermore, [3] it also increases the chance of heart attacks and strokes. • Instead of writing the premises and the conclusion in full in the argument map, we can label them and write down their numbers instead:

Divergent Argument Mapping • This diagram tells us that [2] and [3] are independent reasons supporting [1]. In other words, without [2], [3] would still support [1], and without [3], [2] would still support [1]. (Although the argument is stronger with both premises. ) • Finally, it is also possible to have a single reason giving rise to multiple conclusions : • [1] Gold is a metal. [2] So it conducts electricity. [3] It also conducts heat.

Argument Mapping More complicated examples • Now that we know the basics of argument maps, we can combine the templates we learn above to represent more complicated arguments, by following this procedure: 1. Identify the most important or main conclusion(s) of the argument. 2. Identify the premises used to support the conclusion(s). These are the premises of the main argument. 3. If additional arguments have been given to support any of these premises, identify the premises of these additional arguments as well, and repeat this procedure. 4. Label the premises and conclusions using numerals or letters. 5. Write down the labels in a tree structure and draw arrows leading from sets of premises to the conclusions they support. Let us try this out on this argument: • Po cannot come to the party because her scooter is broken. Dipsy also cannot come because he has to pick up his new hat. I did not invite the other teletubbies, so no teletubby will come up to the party. We now label and reformulate the premises and the conclusions: 1. Po cannot come to the party. 2. Po's scooter is broken. 3. Dipsy cannot come to the party. 4. Dipsy has to pick up his new hat. 5. I did not invite the other teletubbies. 6. [Conclusion] No teletubby will come up to the party. We can then draw the argument map like this:

Weasel words

Weasel Words • Weasel words is an informal term for words that are ambiguous and not supported by facts. They are typically used to create an illusion of clear, direct communication.

Weasel Words • Weasel words are usually expressed with deliberate imprecision with the intention to mislead the listeners or readers into believing statements for which sources are not readily available.

Weasel Words Origin • The expression weasel word derives from the egg-eating habits of weasels. An egg that a weasel has sucked will look intact to the casual observer, while actually being empty. Similarly, words or claims that turn out to be empty upon analysis are known as "weasel words".

Weasel word examples • "A growing body of evidence. . . " (Where is the raw data for your review? ) • "Our product is so good, it was even given away in celebrity gift bags. " (True, perhaps, but not relevant. ) • "See why more of our trucks are sold in southern California than in any other part of the country. " (Southern California is a big vehicle market. ) • "Nobody else's product is better than ours. " (They're all about the same. ) • "Becoming involved with this problem would be beneficial to us. " (In what way would it be beneficial? ) • "People say. . . " (Which people? How do they know? ) • "Critics claim. . . " (Which critics? ) • "I heard that. . . " (Who told you? Is the source reliable? ) • "There is evidence that. . . " (What evidence? Is the source reliable? )

Weasel word examples • Experience shows that. . . " (Whose experience? What was the experience? How does it demonstrate this? ) • "It has been mentioned that. . . " (Can these mentioners be trusted? ) • "Popular wisdom has it that. . . " (Is popular wisdom a test of truth? ) • "It is known that. . . " (By whom and what method is it known? ) • "It turns out that. . . " (How does it turn out? ) • "History has shown that. . . " (Which events, date, facts have shown that and who is interpreting these events, dates, . . . ? )

Weasel Words in Business • Weasel words may be used to detract from an uncomfortable fact, such as the act of firing staff. By replacing "firing staff" with "headcount reduction", one may soften meaning. Jargon of this kind is used to describe things euphemistically. • In certain kinds of advertisements, words are missing or withheld deliberately to influence the buyer. Words such as more or better are misleading due to the absence of a comparison: • ". . . up to 50% off. " (How many items were actually decreased in price by half? The statement holds true even if the price of only one item is reduced by half, and the rest by very little. ) • "Save up to $100 or more!" (What exactly is the significance of the $100? It is neither a minimum nor a maximum, it just sits arbitrarily somewhere in an undefined range. ) • ". . . is now 20% cheaper!" (Is it really 20% cheaper than the last product? ) • "Four out of five people would agree. . . " (How many subjects were included in the study? ) • ". . . is among the (top, leading, best, few, worst, etc. )" (Top 100? Best in customer service/quality/management? ) • ". . . for a fraction of the original price!" (This wording suggests a much lower price even though the fraction could easily be 99/100) • "More people are using. . . " (What does that mean in numbers? ) • "This product helps fight the signs of aging" ("helps" implies that it is the cure)

Weasel Words- Euphemism • A euphemism is a generally innocuous word or expression used in place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something. bb unpleasant. Euphemism b adult entertainment, adult material, gentlemen's special interest literature pornography affirmative action race-based preference, usually in employment or academic admissions, also called reverse discrimination, or in the U. K. positive discrimination. bathroom, powder room, restroom, washroom toilet room, especially one in the house (US) been around the block having had much sexual experience friend of Dorothy, light in the loafers male homosexual custodian, caretaker janitor (Also originally a euphemism: in Latin, it means doorman. ) enhanced interrogation torture escort, hooker, call girl, lady of the evening, streetwalker, sex worker prostitute exotic dancer, peeler stripper feminine protection tampon gentlemen's club strip club, go-go bar in the family way, bun in the oven pregnant a little thin on top, chrome dome, cue ball bald indentured worker slave making love, sleeping with, getting it on, having it off (U. K. ), hooking up, doing it, making the beast with two backs having sex mentally challenged, intellectually challenged stupid, dim, dull, slow; of subnormal intelligence pacification Coercive force, including warfare. Examples: Pacification of Algeria, Pacification of the Araucanía, Pacification operations in German-occupied Poland, and the Pacification of Tonkin. presence "'[P]resence' had been used as a euphemism for 'occupation' during

Weasel Words- Ambiguous • Usually an emotionally appealing phrase so closely associated with highly valued concepts and beliefs that it carries conviction without supporting information or reason. Such highly valued concepts attract general approval and acclaim. Their appeal is to emotions such as love of country and home, and desire for peace, freedom, glory, and honor. They ask for approval without examination of the reason. They are typically used by politicians and propagandists

Weasel Words- Ambiguous • Words and phrases such as "common good", "reform", "courage", "democracy", "freedom", "hope", "patriotism", "strength", are terms with which people all over the world have powerful associations, and they may have trouble disagreeing with them. However, these words are highly abstract and ambiguous, and meaningful differences exist regarding what they actually mean or should mean in the real world.

Weasel Words - Vagueness • Generalizing by means of quantifiers, such as many, when quantifiable measures could be provided, muddies the point being made, and if done deliberately is an example of "weaseling". • Many People say. . . " (How many? ) • "It has been claimed that. . . " (By whom, where, when? ) • "Critics claim. . . " (Which critics? )

Weasel Word Bingo • Play Weasel Word Bingo to see who can get the most "weasel words" into a sentence that appears to make sense. 1. You must compose a paragraph of not less than three sentences. 2. You can use each word/phrase from the list not more than twice in the paragraph. 3. +5 points for each word/phrase used. 4. -3 points for each non-list word used, except conjunctions do not count. 5. The whole thing must make partly coherent sense. 6. Judge's discretion allowed to award points for originality. Past winner where he works: • 'I have been out of the loop and want to touch base on whether we are in that best practice ballpark that would empower us to proactively revisit the bottom line of strategic fit, to think outside the box, be result-driven, have a mindset of client focus so at the end of the day our game plan will create synergy between our core competencies and our knowledge base, and will fast track our leverage to create 24/7 value added win-win business solutions that others will benchmark against and that we can later take offline. '

YOU TUBE clip showing politicians using weasel words. • Click on the image to the left. You will need to be connected to the internet to view this presentation. • Enlarge to full screen

Bibliography • Carl Wrighter discussed weasel words in his book I Can Sell You Anything (1972). • Wikipedia-Weasel Words- http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Weasel_words • Critical Thinking on the web- http: //philosophy. hku. hk/think/arg/complex. php • Watson- Australian author Don Watson collected two volumes (Death Sentence and Watson's Dictionary of Weasel Words) documenting the increasing use of weasel words in government and corporate language. He maintains a website encouraging people to identify and nominate examples of weasel words. It can be found at; http: //www. weaselwords. com. au/index 3. htm