Thinking and Language Chapter 8 Thinking and Language

Thinking and Language Chapter 8: Thinking and Language Case Study: Can Animals Talk to Us? Section 1: Understanding Thinking Section 2: Problem Solving Section 3: Reasoning and Decision Making Section 4: Language Lab: Applying What You’ve Learned Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Case Study: Can Animals Talk to Us? Can animals use language? The answer depends on the definition of language. Experiments with animals and language raise new questions about animal intelligence. Language Studies with Animals Conclusions • Washoe was one of the first chimpanzees reported to use language. • Animals can learn to use signs and symbols and can follow some commands. • A bonobo named Kanzi used several hundred words to communicate. • Most psychologists use a more restrictive definition of language, however. Under this definition, the question of animal language is less clear. • A parrot named Alex learned about 100 words. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language What do you think? • What did Washoe, Kanzi, and Alex learn to do? • How do you think language should be defined? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Section 1 at a Glance Understanding Thinking • Thinking is the mental activity that allows us to understand, process, and communicate information. • The basic units of thought include symbols, concepts, and prototypes. • There are three kinds of thinking: convergent, divergent, and metacognition. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Understanding Thinking Main Idea Thinking is the mental activity that allows humans to process, understand, and communicate information. There are three types of thinking: convergent, divergent, and metacognitive. Reading Focus • What are some basic elements related to thinking? • How do the three types of thinking differ? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language How do you know a sign warns of danger even though you don't read Turkish? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Basic Elements of Thinking • Thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information. • Thinking is made possible through units of thought that include symbols, concepts, and prototypes. Symbols Concepts • A symbol is an object or an act that stands for something else. • A concept is a mental structure used to categorize objects, people, or events that share similar characteristics. • Letters and words are symbols. • Mental images are symbols. • Symbols help us think about things that are not present. • People organize concepts into hierarchies. • People learn concepts through experience. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Prototypes • A prototype is an example of a concept that best exemplifies the characteristics of that concept. • Prototypes help us categorize the world and process information about it. • Without prototypes, people might have to examine unfamiliar elements as if they were totally new. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Identify What are three basic elements related to thinking? Answer: symbols, concepts, and prototypes Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Three Kinds of Thinking • In general people think in three ways: convergent, divergent, and metacognitive. Convergent Divergent • Convergent thinking is thought limited to facts. • Divergent thinking allows the mind to associate more freely to various elements of a problem. • We use convergent thinking to find one solution for a problem or task. • Developing rules and following them is one example of convergent thinking. • Divergent thinking is at the base of creativity. • Divergent thinking typically results in multiple solutions. • Convergent thinking is not particularly creative. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Metacognition • Metacognition consists of planning, evaluating, and monitoring mental activities. • It is thinking about thinking. • It has two different aspects: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Contrast In what ways are three ways of thinking different? Answer: Convergent thinking is directed toward achieving one solution; divergent thinking is open-ended, typically resulting in multiple solutions; metacognition is thinking about thinking—for example, planning a task and then evaluating one’s performance. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Current Research in Psychology Automatic Thought Processes How we think has long been of interest to psychologists. How much of our thinking is done consciously? Do we really think about every single thing we do? Do we deliberately make choices in all our actions? Current research indicates that the answer is no. (Hassin, et. al, eds. , 2006) • Subconscious thought processes are receiving new attention in the field of psychology. • Example: Psychologist John Bargh believes that some of our thinking is nonconscious and automatic. • Experiments have demonstrated the automatic thought process. • Some researchers call automatic thinking “thinking lite. ” • Bargh suggests that automatic thought processes are “mental butlers” that anticipate and take care of some tasks for us without being asked. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Thinking Critically • Think about a situation you had not encountered before. How did your behavior at that time reflect theory about automatic thought? • What are some dangers of automatic thought? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Section 2 at a Glance Problem Solving • Problem solving involves a series of processes, including analyzing the problem, breaking it into component parts, and establishing goals. • Algorithms and heuristics are general approaches to problem solving. • There are specific methods of problem solving, including systematic searching, trial and error, difference reduction, means-end analysis, working backward, and use of analogy. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Problem Solving Main Idea Solving problems can be done in logical and planned ways to achieve the best results. Reading Focus • What are two basic approaches to problem solving? • How can certain methods help with problem solving? • Why do obstacles to problem solving occur? • What is the connection between problem solving and creativity? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language How do you pick up a ship? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Approaches to Problem Solving Algorithms Heuristics • An algorithm is a specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will always lead to the solution of a problem. • Algorithms are guaranteed to work, but they are not always practical. • Mathematical formulas are examples of algorithms. • One kind of complex algorithm is a systematic search. • This is why people use heuristics for many types of problems. • Heuristics are rules of thumb that often, but not always, help us solve problems. • They are shortcuts that are faster than algorithms, but they are not always reliable. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Recall What are two basic processes used in problem-solving? Answer: Algorithms and heuristics are two basic processes used in problem-solving. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

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Thinking and Language Problem-Solving Methods Trial and Error • Somewhat similar to systematic searching, but more haphazard and less reliable. Difference Reduction • Difference reduction is a problem-solving method in which we identify our goal, where we are in relation to it, and the direction we must go to move closer to it. • The aim is to reduce the difference between a present situation in which a problem is unsolved to a desired situation in which the problem is solved. • Not always a reliable method. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Means-End Analysis • Means-end analysis is a heuristic problem-solving technique. • In means-end analysis, certain things we do (means) will have certain results (ends). • Focus on the knowledge that a particular action will have a particular result. Working Backward • Involves breaking a problem down into parts and dealing with each part individually. • Starts by examining the final goal, then works back to determine the best course of action. • Very useful when the goal is known but the way to achieve it is not. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Analogies • An analogy is a similarity between two or more items, events, or situations. • When people have successfully solved one problem, they may try to use the same approach in solving another problem if it is similar enough to the first one. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Identify What are five problem-solving methods? Answer: trial and error, difference reduction, means-end analysis, working backward, analogies Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental Sets • The tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems is called mental set. • Mental set can get in the way of problem-solving. Functional Fixedness • Another obstacle to problem solving is called functional fixedness, which is the tendency to think of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually used for. • Functional fixedness can interfere with finding a solution to a problem. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

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Thinking and Language Reading Check Compare In what ways is functional fixedness a type of mental set? Answer: As with mental set, functional fixedness brings a preexisting attitude or approach to solving a problem. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Problem Solving and Creativity Flexibility • Flexibility is the ability to adapt to new, different, or changing situations. • Flexibility leads to original thinking. Recombination • Recombination is the mental rearrangement of elements of a problem. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Insight and Incubation • Insight gives us sudden understanding of a problem. • The incubation effect is the tendency to arrive at a solution after a period of time away from the problem. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Describe What are some methods for solving problems creatively? Answer: flexibility, recombination, insight, incubation Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Section 3 at a Glance Reasoning and Decision Making • Reasoning is the use of information to reach conclusions. There are two main types of reasoning: deductive and inductive. • People use a variety of methods to make decisions, including using a balance sheet and some types of heuristics. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reasoning and Decision Making Main Idea Deductive and inductive reasoning are used in the decision-making process. Various strategies can help us make decisions. Reading Focus • What is deductive reasoning? • What are the steps in inductive reasoning? • When can weighing costs and benefits be helpful? • What are some shortcuts in decision making? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language How does a pitcher make quick decisions? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Deductive Reasoning • Reasoning is the use of information to reach conclusions. There are two main types of reasoning: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. • In deductive reasoning, the conclusion is true if the premises are true. • A premise is an idea or statement that provides the basic information that allows us to draw conclusions. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Identify What is one problem with using deductive reasoning? Answer: The premises must be true to reach an accurate solution. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Inductive Reasoning • In deductive reasoning, we usually start out with a general statement or principle and reason down to specifics that fit that statement or principle. • In inductive reasoning, we reason from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion. • In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is sometimes wrong, even when the premises are correct. • Even though inductive reasoning does not allow us to be certain that our assumptions are correct, we use inductive reasoning all the time. • Most sciences, including psychology, rely on inductive reasoning. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Contrast How is inductive reasoning different from deductive reasoning? Answer: Inductive reasoning moves from specific information to a (sometimes inaccurate) general conclusion; deductive reasoning will always arrive at the correct answer if the premises are true. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Weighing Costs and Benefits • Making decisions means choosing among goals or courses of action to reach goals. • When we make decisions, we weigh the pluses and minuses of each possible course of action. • Making a balance sheet can help ensure that all available information has been considered. • A balance sheet can also be helpful when a person is making a decision between two or more alternatives. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Recall What is one method for making good decisions? Answer: weighing costs and benefits Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Shortcuts in Decision Making The Availability Heuristic • The availability heuristic can help people make decisions on the basis of available information in their immediate consciousness. The Representativeness Heuristic • Based on the representativeness heuristic, people make decisions about a sample according to the population that the sample appears to represent. • The representativeness heuristic can be misleading. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

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Thinking and Language The Anchoring Heuristic • The anchoring heuristic is the process of making decisions based on certain ideas or standards held by the decision maker. • Family traditions, political beliefs, religion, and ways of life are common anchors. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Identify Main Ideas What are three shortcuts in decision making? Answer: availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, anchoring heuristic Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Section 4 at a Glance Language • Language is the communication of ideas through symbols that are arranged according to rules of grammar. • Language contains three basic elements: phonemes, morphemes, and syntax. • Children everywhere learn language in the same sequence of steps. Heredity and environment both affect language learning. • Bilingualism is the ability to understand speak two languages. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Main Idea Language is a complex human activity that allows humans to communicate with others over time and space. It has specific elements, and people acquire language in specific steps. Reading Focus • What are some of the basic concepts of language? • How do the basic elements of language build on each other? • What are the stages of language development? • Why is bilingualism a significant aspect of modern society? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language What language is written on the Phaistos Disk? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Basic Concepts of Language • Language is the communication of ideas through symbols that are arranged according to the rules of grammar. • Language makes it possible for people to share knowledge. • The psychology of language is called psycholinguistics. Hereditary Influences Environmental Influences • The natural tendency to acquire language can be called a language acquisition device (LAD). • Children learn language partly by observing and imitating other people. • The LAD enables the brain to understand use grammar and to turn ideas into sentences. • Children acquire the languages of their parents and then pass them down to their children. • Most people are capable of acquiring language from about 18 months of age to puberty. • In this manner, languages pass, with small changes, from generation to generation. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Contrast What are the two main sources of language acquisition? Answer: hereditary (natural tendency to acquire learning) and environmental (observation and imitation) Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language The Basic Elements of Language Phonemes Morphemes • Phonemes are the basic sounds of language. • The units of meaning in a language are called morphemes. • English uses about 43 phonemes, including some that are not found in other languages. • Morphemes are made up of phonemes. Syntax Semantics • The way in which words are arranged to make phrases and sentences is syntax. • The study of meaning in language is called semantics. • The rules for word order are the grammar of a language. • Semantics involves the relationship between language and the objects depicted in the language. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Describe What are three basic elements of language? Answer: phonemes, morphemes, syntax Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language The Stages of Language Development Crying, Cooing, and Babbling • Crying is an effective form of verbal expression for infants. • Infants begin to coo during their second month of age. • Infants begin to babble at about six months of age. • Crying, cooing, and babbling are basic human abilities. • Babies understand much of what other people are saying before they learn to talk. Words, Words • The learning of words is the start of true language development. • Most early words are nouns. • Research indicates that reading to children increases their vocabulary. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Development of Grammar • The first things children say are usually brief, but they have a grammar. • Most children who are nearing two years old will begin to use twoword sentences. • Two-word sentences usually show understanding of grammar. • Children make language errors because of overregularization. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Click on the image to play the Interactive. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Sequence In what order do children learn language? Answer: They begin by crying, cooing, and babbling, then learn to use words, and finally develop an understanding of grammar. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Bilingualism • To speak two languages fluently is to be bilingual. • In general, learning a second language during childhood is easier than learning it later in life. • The bilingual population of the United States is growing. • Many people in other countries speak two or more languages. • Most psychologists believe that bilingualism is good for children’s cognitive development. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Reading Check Make Generalizations What are some advantages to bilingualism? Answer: increased cognitive flexibility in children, improved mastery over child’s native language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Cultural Diversity and Psychology Disappearing Languages By the year 2100 about half of the world’s 7, 000 or so languages are likely to have disappeared. As a result, information about cultures, their history, the environment, and the different ways that people think will also disappear. • Languages die as the few remaining people who speak them die. • When a language is lost, so is an entire culture. • Languages are disappearing most rapidly in five regions. • Different ways of thinking and different ways of using language are also lost. • Two of the regions are the upper Pacific Coast and the Southwest. • Many countries are working to save or revive dying languages. • One reason languages die out is because of the influence of “predator” languages. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

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Thinking and Language Thinking Critically • What are three reasons why languages are dying? • Do you think that the English language reveals unique features of our culture? If so, what are they? Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Lab: Applying What You’ve Learned Children, Thinking, and Language Help new parents understand how their child will think, solve problems, and use language in these processes. 1. Introduction 2. Conducting Your Research • You will create a pamphlet designed to help parents understand how their children think and solve problems and the importance of language in this process. • Focus on concerns parents have about how well their children will acquire language and use language to think. • Focus on steps parents can take to ensure their children develop language skills. Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Lab (con’t. ) 3. Sharing Your Expertise 4. Making the Pamphlet • Share your expertise with your group members. • Your pamphlet must have five sections, one for each topic, plus a cover with a title, your name, and a graphic or illustration. • Include the following: • Name of your topic • Important terms and concepts related to your topic • How your topic is important • Examples of how your topic works • Each section must include: • Three to five sentences or bullet points • At least two terms related to the topic • An example • A graphic or illustration Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Lab (con’t. ) 5. Exchange Pamphlets 6. Discussion • Exchange pamphlets with another group. • Hold a group discussion about: • Review the new pamphlet. • The topics, examples, and illustrations • Note information you did not include in your own pamphlet. • Look at the examples and illustrations. • Overall success of lab • How parents might use the information • Challenges in problem-solving • How language might change during your lifetime Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Thinking and Language Original Content Copyright by HOLT Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.