Thinking and Language Chapter 8 1 Cognition Cognition

Thinking and Language Chapter 8 1

Cognition

Cognition • Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating. • Metacognition 3

What is thought? Based upon… • Concepts -- Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people… Form concepts from 1. Mental Images 2. Prototype (typical example) Our concept of men may include all of the following guys…. But they are based on our prototypes. Ideal male. . . 4

Category Hierarchies • We organize concepts into category hierarchies. • Part of our Schemata. Courtesy of Christine Brune 5

Problem Solving Problem solving strategies include: 1. Trial and Error 2. Algorithms 3. Heuristics 4. Insight 6

A B Tower of Hanoi Problem C 7

Algorithms • Exhaust all possibilities • Guarantee the right solution to a problem. • Usually by using a formula. (Computers) • They work but are sometimes impractical (very time consuming) https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=k 0 xgj. Uh. EG 3 U SPLOYOCHYG 8

Heuristics • A rule of thumb/ principle that generally can be used to make a judgment or solve a problem. • It is fast, but is… • Prone to errors • Two major types of heuristics…. PSYCHOLOGY 9

Representative Heuristic Who went to Harvard? This guy did not go to Harvard (but he looks like he did). • If I tell you that Sonia Dara is a Sports Illustrated swimsuit model, you would make certain quick judgments (heuristics) about her…like about her interests or intelligence. • She is an economics major at Harvard University. • Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype. • Like thinking everyone from FC is a prep, NA is ghetto, and NH is a hick • or someone with glasses is nerdy, • or a blonde is not smart. 10

Availability Heuristic • Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind. • Vivid examples in the news often cause an availability heuristic. • Which place would you be more scared of getting mugged or even murdered? https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=2_wkv 1 Gx 2 v. M The crime rate (per capita) of Gary, Indiana is MUCH higher than the Bronx. But when you think of crime, which town comes to mind? The Bronx, NY Gary, IN 11

Insight • Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. • Humans and animals have insight. • Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), it activates the right temporal cortex Grande using boxes to obtain food 12

Class Activity • Exercise: The Human Knot • Incentive: Candy!

Obstacles in Solving Problems 14

Mental set • a. k. a. rigidity • The tendency to fall into established thought patterns. • Some examples are…. 15

Fixation • An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. • An example of fixation is functional fixedness (inability to see a new use for an object). The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles? 16

The Matchstick Problem: Solution 17

Candle-Mounting Problem Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board? 18

Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution 19

? Problem: Tie the two ropes together. Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.

The Nine-Dot problem • Connect all 9 dots. • Use only 4 lines. • Do not lift your pencil from the page after you begin drawing.

Confirmation Bias • We look for evidence to confirm our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them. • For example, if one believes that all Italians are in shape and go tanning, then they turn on MTV. Look…I knew it was true!!! But is it really? 2– 4– 6 24

Framing • 90% of the population will be saved with this medication…. . or • 10% of the population will die despite this medication. • You should not drink more than two drinks per day…. or • You should not drink more than 730 drinks a year. • The way a problem is presented can drastically effect the way we view it. What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean? 25

Heuristics can lead to Overconfidence… • A tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. • Belief Perseverancemaintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong. • Belief Bias- People will tend to accept any and all conclusions that fit in with their systems of belief, without challenge or any deep consideration of what they are actually agreeing with. Exaggerated Fear 26

CREATIVITY • Almost impossible to define. • Some correlation between creativity and intelligence. • Convergent Thinking versus Divergent Thinking Think of as many uses as you can for a …… Divergent thinking Macgyver 27 Mythbusters

Language Our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others. 28

All languages contain…. Phonemes Morphemes • The smallest units of sound in a language. • English has about 44 phonemes. • The smallest unit of meaningful sound. • Can be words like a or but. • Can also be parts of words like prefixes or suffixes…”ed” at the end of a word means past tense. Unforgettable = un · for · get · table 29

Structuring Language Phonemes Basic sounds (about 44) … ea, sh. Morphemes Smallest meaningful units (100, 000) … un, for. Words Meaningful units (290, 500) … meat, pumpkin. Phrase Composed of two or more words (326, 000) … meat eater. Sentence Composed of many words (infinite) … She opened the jewelry box. 30

Grammar Is this the White House or the House White? Language Failure • The rules of a language. • Syntax: the order of words in a language. • Semantics: the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences. – Ex: adding –ed to the word laugh 31

Language Acquisition Stages that we learn language… 1. Babbling Stage (ah-goo) – 4 months 2. Holophrastic Stage (one word stage – doggy) – 1 year 3. Telegraphic Speech Stage (2 word stage -- “Go car”) – before 2 years old • Syntax Understanding • Overgeneralization -- rules • Overextension -- concepts 32

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How do we learn language? 34

Social Learning Theory • B. F. Skinner from the Behaviorist School • Baby may imitate a parent. • If they are reinforced they keep saying the word. • If they are punished, they stop saying the 35 word.

Noam Chomsky’s Theory (Nativist theory) • We learn language too quickly for it to be through reinforcement and punishment. • Inborn universal language acquisition device The Girl in the Window 36

Critical Period Hypothesis for Language Development • Childhood is a critical period for fully developing certain aspects of language. Children never exposed to any language (spoken or signed) by about age 7 gradually lose their ability to master any language. Genie • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=th. IDCL 3 NCl. Q 37

Critical Period Learning new languages gets harder with age. 38

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Genes, Brain, & Language Michael Newman/ Photo Edit, Inc. Eye of Science/ Photo Researchers, Inc. • Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience modifies the brain. 40

Benjamin Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity/ Determinism • The idea that language determines the way we think. • The Hopi tribe has no past tense in their language, so Whorf says they rarely think of the past. 41

Do Animals Think? Common cognitive skills in humans and apes include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Concept Formation Insight Problem Solving Culture Theory of Mind? CNN video Object Permanence African grey parrot sorts red and blue blocks and balls. 42

Insight Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when solving problems. Sultan uses sticks to get food. 43

Problem Solving Apes are, much like us, shaped by reinforcement when solving problems. Termites Fishing Hammer & Anvil Chimpanzee fishing for ants. 44

Animal Culture Animals display customs and culture that are learned and transmitted over generations. Cooperation & Imitation Chimps vs Children Dolphins using sponges as forging tools. Chimpanzee mother using and teaching a young how to use a stone hammer. 45

Do animals use language? • Washoe (chimp) 181 Signs (ASL) by 32 • Kanzi uses Lexigram (300 +) – phrases & semantics – Novel Sentences • Limited Vocabulary & Lack Syntax 46 CNN video Understanding

https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v =V 1 vcyoh 0_ew 47

Section 5 - Learning Goal Five: Discuss the importance of cognitive reappraisal with respect to stress. • Cognitive appraisal is an individual’s interpretation of events in their lives as harmful, threatening, or challenging and their determination of whether they have the resources to cope effectively with the events. • Coping is a kind of problem solving. • In the case of primary appraisal, individuals interpret whether an event involves harm or loss that has already occurred, a threat of some future danger, or a challenge to overcome. • In the case of secondary appraisal, individuals evaluate their resources and determine how effectively they can be used to cope with the event. It is considered secondary because it both comes after primary appraisal and depends on the degree to which an event is appraised as harmful, threatening, or challenging. 48

Cognitive Reappraisal • To reinterpret an experience or to think about it in a different way means that we are cognitively reappraising the situation. • Research has shown that reappraising an event can change the way we feel about the situation and can also change the brain activity linked to the experience. • Benefit finding means looking at a stressful event and focusing on the good that has arisen in one’s life as a result of that event. 49