Theories of Motivation Motivation and Behavior Components and

Things You’ll Learn in Chapter 10 Q 1 Why might paying students to get good grades be a good idea? Q 2 How can just looking at pictures of high-fat foods make you feel hungry? Q 3 Why is motivation a better predictor of math success in children than IQ? Q 4 How can simply smiling reduce stress? Q 5 Why do emotional expressions of Olympic athletes appear the same across all cultures? © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Movere Latin meaning “to move” Motivation: set of factors that activate, direct and maintain behavior, usually toward some goal Emotion: subjective feeling that includes arousal, cognitions, and expressed behaviors © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Major Theories of Motivation Biological 1. Instinct 2. Drive reduction 3. Optimal arousal Psychological 4. Incentive 5. Cognitive As you learn each theory, try to identify which theory best explains your personal behaviors. Biopsychosocial 6. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Theories: Instinct • Instincts = a fixed, unlearned response pattern found in almost all members of a species • Williams Mc. Dougall (1908) proposed the first instincts (repulsion, curiosity, selfassertiveness) and the list grew to 10, 000+ by 1920 s. • Sociobioligists believe instincts, like competitiveness, are genetically transmitted © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological: Drive-reduction theory = motivation begins with a physiological need that elicits a drive toward behavior that will satisfy the original need; once that need is met, a state of balance (homeostasis) is restored, and motivation What needs to decreases humans have – both biological and psychological? © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological: Optimal-arousal • Optimal-arousal theory = Organisms are motivated to achieve and maintain an

Psychological: Incentive • Incentive theory = motivation results from external stimuli that “pull” an organism in certain directions. – Opposite of drive-reduction theories, which say internal factors “push” people in certain directions Hunger pushes us to eat Sight of apple pie pulls us toward continued eating © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Q 1 Why might paying students to get good grades be a good idea? • Paying middle-school students $2 daily for each goal met (increasing grades, following rules, attendance) produced higher reading test scores (Fryer, 2010) • Stay tuned for how using an extrinsic reward (pay for goal achievement) may create problems. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychological: Cognitive • Cognitive theories: motivation is affected by: • Attributions = the way we think about our own and others’ actions Do you attribute your success to your hard work or to luck? What difference might this attribution make to your motivation? • Expectancies = what we think will happen Does your expectation of success affect your motivation? © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biopsychosocial Theories • Hierarchy of needs = Maslow’s view that basic human motives form a hierarchy; the lower motives (such as physiological and safety needs) must be met before advancing to higher needs (such as belonging and selfactualization) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOR © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Hunger and Eating: Biology • Stomach: receptors in stomach and intestines detect level of nutrients; pressure receptors in wall of stomach signal feelings of emptiness or satiety (fullness); chemical signals also play a role • Biochemistry: neurotransmitters, hormones, enzymes and other chemicals affect hunger and satiety • Brain: hypothalamus regulates eating, drinking and body temp; lateral hypothalamus stimulates eating while ventromedial hypothalamus signals satiety – but, just like other behaviors, hunger and eating are governed by numerous neural circuits © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Hunger and Eating: Psychology How can just looking at pictures of high. Q 2 fat foods make you feel hungry? • Simply looking at high-fat foods can stimulate parts of the brain in charge of appetite, thus increasing feelings of cravings for sweet and salty foods (Luo et al. , 2013) • Cultural influence – when, what, where and why we eat is culturally conditioned © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Eating Disorders • Eating disorders have both genetic/biological causes and psychological causes • Obesity = having a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or above, based on height and weight • Binge-eating disorder = an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of consuming large amounts of food in a discrete period of time, while feeling a lack of control, but not followed by purge behaviors © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. What environmental factors might encourage obesity and binge-eating?

Eating Disorders • Anorexia nervosa = an eating disorder characterized by severe loss of weight resulting from self-imposed starvation and obsessive fear of obesity – Distorted body image: even emaciated body is seen as fat – Extreme malnutrition leads to bone fractures, loss of menstruation, loss of brain tissue • Bulimia nervosa = an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of consuming large quantities of food (bingeing), followed by purging: self-induced vomiting, extreme exercise, laxative use, and other medications – Vomiting damages teeth, throat, stomach; leads to digestive disorders and heart problems © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Q 3 Why is motivation a better predictor of math success in children than IQ? • Need for achievement (n. Ach) or Achievement motivation = the desire to excel, especially in competition with others (Henry Murray) – Prefer moderately difficult tasks − not too easy (boring!) and not too hard (risk failure!) – Competitive Motivation for – Prefer clear goals and feedback academic success, – Regulate their efforts plus study skills, are – Persistent toward goal better predictors of long-term math – Accomplish more in school and work achievement than IQ (Murayama et al. , 2012) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sexuality • Sexual response cycle = Masters and Johnson’s description of the four-stage bodily response to sexual arousal, which consists of excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sexual Orientation • Sexual orientation = a primary erotic attraction toward members of the same sex (homosexual, gay, lesbian), both sexes (bisexual), or the other sex (heterosexual) • Genetics and biology play the dominant role in determining sexual orientation • Sexual prejudice = a negative attitude toward an individual because of his or her sexual orientation. Formerly “homophobia” © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation • Extrinsic motivation = motivation based on external rewards or threat of punishment • Intrinsic motivation = motivation resulting from internal, personal satisfaction from a task or activity Do you study for the grade or for love of learning? Did you parents pay you for grades? © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

• When given an extrinsic reward (money, praise) for an activity that should be intrinsically motivating (helping, visiting a park, watching TV), enjoyment, interest, and likelihood of continuing the activity DECREASE (Hennessey & Amabile, 1998; Kohn, 2000; Cini, Kruger, & Ellis, 2013). • Extrinsic rewards should inform about superior performance and be given with “no strings attached” © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

COMPONENTS AND THEORIES OF EMOTION © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights

Emotions • Emotion = a complex pattern of feelings that includes arousal (heart pounding), cognitions (thoughts, values, and expectations), and expressive behaviors (smiles, frowns) • Emotions have three components: 1. Biological 2. Cognitive 3. Behavioral © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological (arousal) Component • What happens in your body when you get a sudden surprise? • Changes in heart rate, perspiration, breathing are controlled by brain and ANS – Limbic system, especially amygdala – Thalamus sends signal to cortex for processing AND to amygdala for immediate response – Autonomic nervous system prepares for (and recovers from) fight or flight © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive (Thinking) Component • What you experience as pleasurable may be boring or aversive to another • Self-report measures (surveys, interviews) measure what people think about their emotions • But sometimes people are unwilling or unable to accurately report emotions • The other two components of emotions (biological and behavioral) are used in research to supplement cognitive measures © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Behavioral (Expressive) Component • Facial expressions are an important form of emotional communication • When verbal message and nonverbal message don’t match, we believe the nonverbal message Which one is the real smile and which one is the Duchenne smile? © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Three Major Theories of Emotion • James-Lange = the subjective experience of emotion results from physiological changes rather than being its cause (“I feel sad because I’m crying”) • Cannon-Bard = emotions and physiological changes occur simultaneously (“I’m crying and feel sad at the same time”) • Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory = emotion depends on two factors – physiological arousal and cognitive labeling © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Comparing 3 Theories of Emotion © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights

Q 4 How can simply smiling reduce stress? • Facial-feedback hypothesis = movements of the facial muscles produce and/or intensify our subjective experience of emotion • Smiling while holding hand in ice water produced lower heart rates © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Evolution, Culture, and Emotion • Universal emotions like happiness, surprise, sadness, anger, fear, and disgust appear in all cultures Q 5 Why do emotional expressions of Olympic athletes appear the same across all cultures? • In both US and S. Korea, participants correctly rated expressions as “triumph” and “pride” • Each culture has its own display rules governing how, when and where emotions are expressed © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Polygraph as Lie Detector • Polygraph = the instrument that measures sympathetic arousal (heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and skin conductivity) to detect emotional arousal, which in turn supposedly reflects lying versus truthfulness • Based on theory that when people lie they feel guilty and anxious • Polygraph error rates between 25 and 75% © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.