Theories of Development Themes in Developmental Psychology Nature

Theories of Development

Themes in Developmental Psychology Nature versus Nurture Is Development Continuous or Does It Occur In Stages? Stability versus Change

Prenatal Development

Stage One: Conception 250 -300 million sperm + 1 egg + a little luck = zygote! Fertility rates by age Age 15 25 35 45 Rate per cycle 40 -50% 30 -35% 15 -20% 3 -5% • Zygote implants in uterus. • h. CG released. • h. CG tells body to make progesterone. • Progesterone keeps uterine lining from shedding. • Fewer than half of zygotes survive beyond first two weeks.

Three Periods of Development Period of the zygote (weeks 1 -2)-also called the germinal period Period of the embryo (weeks 3 -8) of the fetus (weeks 9 -38) Age of Viability (between 22 -26 weeks) By 24 weeks, fetus has a 50% chance of survival **These are not the same as first, second, and third trim

Developmental Trends Cephalocaudal—from head to tail; development occurs head-down Head region accounts for 50% of total length during the first month Proximodistal—development occurs “from the inside out”—midline outward Same pattern of development throughout childhood

Early Fetal Middle Fetal Development (Weeks 9 - Development (5 -6 12) Months) Embryo becomes a fetus when bone replaces cartilage Vocal cords, nails, lungs have formed External genitalia are identifiable Heartbeat can be heard Baby can smile, frown, suck, and swallow Grasping reflex/ Thumb sucking Lung breathing is possible Sleep/wake cycles similar to newborn’s Eyes and ears are sensitive to light and sound All neurons present

Cool Facts About Infants They prefer their mother’s voice over all others No preference in father’s voice over other men’s Fetuses develop taste preferences and aversions; strong tastes such as garlic are present in the amniotic fluid (also in breast milk. Moro Reflex Babinski Reflex Palmer Grasp Reflex

Teratogens Any environmental agent that can interfere with the process of normal growth Especially harmful in the embryonic stage because this is when organs are being formed. Effects of a teratogenic substance are worse on the body part or organ systems that are being formed at the time of exposure Common Teratogens: Caffeine Tobacco (low birth weight, miscarriage, SIDS, asthma, and childhood cancer) Alcohol

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Involves intellectual disability, impaired motor coordination, poor attention and memory, and certain physical characteristics. Alcohol has epigenetic effect – leaves chemical markers on DNA that switch genes abnormally on or off.

Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Cognitive. Developmental Theory Most influential theory in child development Children learn by actively constructing knowledge and manipulating objects Believed that development occurs in stages Key to cognitive development is not language but action— manipulating objects and moving in space. Drive to make sense of experiences.

Basic Definitions Organization: integration of knowledge into a system to make sense of environment Schemas: basic cognitive structures-concepts or behavioral scripts Assimilation: incorporating information into existing structures Accommodation: changing cognitive structures to include the new knowledge. Adaptation: how a child handles information that conflicts with what he already knows. 2 nd step– occurs only when one can no longer fit a new idea or object into an existing structure. Must come up with a new category or name.

Four Stages of Development Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years` Preoperational stage: 2 -6 years Concrete operations: 6 -12 years Formal operations: 12 years and up, if it occurs at all

Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) Infants “think” by acting on the world with their senses Explore environment with senses & motor skills Acquire a primitive sense of self & others; gain self-awareness by 18 mos. Object permanence is the most significant development. (Even dogs have it!) By the end of the stage, infant can think and plan in order to solve problems.

Magical thinking Preoperational Stage (2 -6 years) Fantasy, makebelieve Use of symbols Language Lacks logic

Major errors in thought: Preoperational Stage Conservation error: failing to see that properties of an object do not change when you change their appearance. . Egocentrism: believing that everyone shares your thoughts/feelings Animism: believing that inanimate objects are alive

Reasoning becomes logical & grounded in reality Concrete operational stage (6 -12 yrs) Can organize objects into classes/subclasses Capable of transitivity and seriation No longer make conservation error Can handle math problems but not abstract math

Formal operations (12+) Abstract, hypothetical thought Can reason with symbols & do advanced math Can think of all possible outcomes to a problem Can think about scenarios such as “What if humans had no thumbs? ” Question authority/ frustrated with imperfect world. Not everyone reaches this level of thought Not common in non. Western cultures that do not emphasize abstract thinking.

Social & Emotional Development

Temperament Inborn characteristic way of reacting to things in the environment Thomas & Chess found in their longitudinal studies Easy (40%) Difficult (10%) Slow-to-warm-up (15%) A mixture (35%)

Parents need to modify their parenting style to fit the temperament of each child. This process is called goodness-of-fit. Interactional Synchrony & Goodnessof-Fit It’s easier to parent easier children. Parents also need to develop interactional synchrony-- respond to the child’s needs appropriately but not intrusively. Interactional synchrony and taking care of the baby leads to attachment between the parent and child. If not, deprivation.

Attachment A strong affectional tie between people or between a person and an object (e. g. , child with favorite stuffed toy). Harlow & Zimmerman--study with rhesus monkeys --it’s not feeding that fosters attachment but providing comfort. Nurturing attachment. Mary Ainsworth created a test called Strange Situations to measure the attachment of infants to their parents (particularly their mothers).

Human Attachment Secure: contingent responsiveness & emotional availability Resistant: parent shows unpredictability Avoidant: parent is either overintrusive (not respecting baby’s space) or is cold and rejecting. Disorganized: severe abuse, neglect, death of parent. Seen in orphanages & abused kids.

30% of abused children carry on that cycle of abuse. Children Deprivation of Attachment with avoidant parents may avoid intimacy with romantic partners. Children with anxious attachment may be dependent and clingy. Children with disorganized attachment may be never form healthy relationships.

Parenting Styles (Diana Baumrind) Authoritarian-harsh and militant; coercive Permissive – unrestraining (few demands, limits, punishments) Negligent – uninvolved (do not seek close relationship) **Authoritative – confrontive (demanding, yet responsive)

Erikson: Theory of Psychosocial Development Disciple Stage Each of Freud’s theorist stage represents conflict between biological maturation (growth) and demands of society

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Memorize!

Both Piaget & Lawrence Kohlberg believed that moral development advanced as cognitive development advanced. Moral Development Kohlberg tested morality using hypothetical moral situations such as the “Heinz scenario. Based on their reasoning, he classified them into three levels, with two stages in each level.

Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug and this was much more than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.

Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

Additional Factors in Morality Delay of Gratification Ability to decline small rewards now for greater rewards later

Teen and Adult Development New Trend: Emerging Adulthood - from 18 to mid-twenties during which people have left adolescence behind, but have not yet assumed adult responsibilities.

Adult Physical Development • Physical abilities peak by mid-twenties. • Diet and exercise become increasingly important with aging as physical decline is inevitable. • Decline in female fertility, and menopause hits at around age 50.

Adult Social Development • Adulthood dominated by desire for intimacy (close relationships) and generativity (being productive and supporting future generations). • Culture generally defines a “social clock”: right time to leave home, get a married. • • Predictors for marital longevity are marrying after age 20 and being welleducated. Myth that empty-nesters are sad; for most couples, this time represents a “post-launch honeymoon”.

Aging – Pros and Cons Pros • Greater selfconfidence and sense of identity. • More positive emotions, less lability. • Recognition memory stays strong Cons • Muscle strength, cardiac output, sensory abilities, and reaction time decrease. • Chromosome tips wear down. • Recall declines.

Death and Dying • Grieving is slightly less severe when it follows the “social clock” of what is expected. • Untimely death of a child, spouse, or loved one is more likely to result in depression. • There are no set stages for grieving, no set time period, and no right or wrong way to grieve.