Theories of Cultural Dimensions Emilie W Gould RPI

Theories of Cultural Dimensions Emilie W. Gould RPI

Values vs. Perception Two sets of theory; two theoretical mechanisms to explain differences between cultures: • Cultural Values • Perception The first set comes from anthropology and sociology The second from psychology – the attempt of a Western social science to find universal mechanisms to explain variance

Cultural Values Based on some organizing principle: • Universal Problems • Spheres of Human Activity • Structural Analysis • Communication Styles • Nonverbal vs. Verbal Preferences • Work Dimensions

Some of the Best-Known Theories of Crosscultural Variability • • Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientations Parson’s Pattern Variables Hall’s High-Low Context Cultures Hall’s Monochronic-Polychronic Cultures Witkin and Berry’s Loose | Tight Sociocultural Systems Condon and Yousef’s Spheres of Human Activity Victor’s LESCANT model Hofstede’s Dimensions

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientations Five existential beliefs influence individual choices: – Character of Human Nature (good, evil, mixed; changeable or given) – Relationship to Nature (mastery, harmony, mastered by) – Time (past, present, future orientation) – Human Action (doing, becoming) – Relationships to Others (individualism, lineality, collectivity) Foundational theory (Condon & Yousef, Trompenaars)

Parson’s Pattern Variables Social context structured by various dichotomies: – Affective | Affective neutrality (immediate/ delayed gratification) – Self | Collective (relationships to others) – Universalism | Particularism (mode of characterizing people and objects) – Diffuseness | Specificity (response to others -- focus on whole or parts) – Ascription | Achievement (human qualities) – Instrumental | Expressive (interactional goals) Theory developed for society as a whole

Hall’s High/Low Context Cultures vary in the importance of context for communication. – In high-context cultures, most of the information is contained in the context; the message is not explicit – In low-context cultures, meaning must be clearly spelled out in messages High-context cultures tend to be traditional and collectivist; low-context cultures are present or future-oriented and individualistic

Hall’s Monochronic/Polychronic Cultures are further divided by their use of time: • Monochronic cultures: – Focus on one thing at a time – Reduce context by segmenting reality – Dislike interruption – Consider time as tangible (something to be saved, spent, etc. ) – Like closure • Polychronic cultures like the opposite

Witkin and Berry’s Loose | Tight Sociocultural Systems Degree of hierarchical structure in society determines levels of differentiation between people: – Role Diversity – Role Relatedness Expectations are reciprocal but differ according to whether they are: – imposed and received – proposed and interpreted

Condon & Yousef’s Spheres of Human Activity Expanded Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s five relationships 24 categories Much more descriptive but less valuable in terms of identifying regularities between cultures

Victor’s LESCANT Model Based on a structural analysis of society; what mechanisms have people established to control their environment – Language – Environment and technology – Social organization – Context – Authority – Nonverbal behavior – Time

Hofstede’s Work Dimensions Hofstede studied IBMers in 40 countries and found 4 universal sociocultural dimensions: • Power Distance (degree that power in organizations is distributed unequally) • Individualism | Collectivism • Masculinity | Femininity (valuing things or relationships) • Uncertainty Avoidance (lack of tolerance for change and ambiguity)

A Fifth “Hofstede Dimension” After writing Cultures and Organizations, Hofstede persuaded to define a fifth dimension: – Long/short term orientation (degree that the culture looks ahead) Concentrated in countries with a Confucian tradition of respect for elders, focus on the past, and allegiance to family (and state)

Gundykunst’s Model of Crosscultural Comparison Recognized that multiple dimensions of cultural variability • Influence social cognitive processes • But are mediated by various factors: – Situation | Affect | Social scripts (including schema | historical experience) • To result in varying levels of understanding: – Description | Prediction | Explanation

Next Week • Perception… and • Social Categorization

Perceptual Models Depend on psychological explanations of attention to features of the physical and social environment

Perception How do people – Select – Categorize – Interpret information about the natural and social world around them? The “Onion” metaphor

Perception - Selection The first task in perception is separating an item of interest from its background… • Selective exposure • Selective attention • Selective retention Consider a four-legged creature

Perception - Categorization In the second stage of perception, we begin to develop structured categories that help us identify the same phenomenon through time • Perceptual object stored in the mind as a stable concept • Internal visualization developed in association with memory (image) The creature acquires the identity of dog

Perception - Interpretation In the third stage, we attach meaning to our categories and begin “thinking about” them • Thinking falls into embedded patterns • Relationships are elaborated and higher-level meaning assigned to perceptions – Is the dog a good companion? – Is the dog good to eat?

Perception – Symbol Systems Intepretations may vary; different groups of people will think differently about the same object • Development of complex symbol systems to record and communicate about the world • Art, music, language, mathematics, cuisine “Spot” or Dinner

Stewart and Bennett’s Perceptual Model Structure Product Process Sensation Sensory stimuli Surface Sensing Perception • Figure/ ground • Objects • Images • Concepts Perceiving Cognition Patterns of thinking Thinking • Language Complex symbol systems • Visual • Music • Math Encoding/ symbolizing

Onion Metaphor To understand a problem, you sometimes have to work back from language > underlying perceptions “Figure and ground” are reciprocal – Our culture predisposes us to notice some things and not others – We cannot perceive things we have no language for Can learn to be more attentive to certain stimuli, give them names, and incorporate them into our personal and social systems

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Grammar and vocabulary of language constrain perception Different languages incline people to different world views – German (which puts verbs at the end of sentences) changes the culture’s action orientation – ASL (American Sign Language) inclines speakers to “physical”humor and puns – French (uses nominalizations) encourages abstract thinking and discussion of “ideas”

European Patterns of Reasoning • Universalistic – deductive; power to know the truth given certain premises (France) • Nominalistic/ hypothetical – emphasizes empiricism and induction (Anglo-American) • Intuitional – stresses organic unity of the whole and its parts (German/ Slavic nationalism) • Dialectical – systematic (like universalism) but focuses on naturally antagonistic forces found in “the world” (German Hegalian)