THEORIES OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 1 INTRODUCTION Child development

THEORIES OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 1

INTRODUCTION • Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of history. • Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical growth. • Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in the 20 th-century, but it tended to focus on abnormal behavior.

WHY LEARN CHILD PSYCHOLOGY? ? ?

An understanding of child development is essential, allowing us to understand the cognitive, emotional, physical, social and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.

IMPORTANCE OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY • • Understand Know Problem Deliver Dental Services Communication Confidence Teach Comfort

DEFINITIONS PSYCHOLOGY: “ is the science dealing with human nature , function & phenomenon of his soul in the main. ” It is the science that deals with the study of man, his behaviour and his relationship with the environment. It seeks to understand ability, motivates thinking processes and action of people.

CHILD PSYCHOLOGY: “ is the science that deals with the mental power or an interaction between the conscious & subconscious element in a child “

Development of child occurs as a result of genetic and environment influence classically defined as NATURE Genetic Vs NURTURE Environment

THEORIES OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY ØPSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES. - Psychosexual/Psychoanalytical theory –Sigmond Freud - Psychosocial theory – Erickson - Social learning theory – Bandura ØBEHAVIOURAL THEORIES - Hierarchy of needs – Maslow Cognitive theory – Piaget Classical conditioning – Pavlov Operant conditioning – Skinner

PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY Sigmond Freud ( 1905 ) The first formal theory of personality to have marked impact on psychology & psychiatry was that of Sigmond Freud

• Child behaviour is motivated by a need to satisfy instinctive needs. In the search to satisfy these needs a state of conflict arises which demands resolution. • This conflict results in development of anxiety. • Sigmond Freud has described the presence of a structure called Phychic Structure.

Freud & Personality Structure Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives — Pleasure Principle Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways Reality Principle Super Ego voice of conscience that focuses on how we ought to behave

ID

ID • It is the basic structure of personality. • It serves as a reserviour of instincts or their mental representative • Is present at birth. • Impulse ridden & strives for immediate pleasure & gratification (Pleasure principle)

SUPER EGO

SUPER EGO • Acts as the sensor for acceptability of thoughts, feelings and behaviour. • Superego is determined by the regulations that are imposed upon the child by the parents, society and culture. • This internalised control produces feeling of shame and guilt.

IN TRANSITION FROM ID TO SUPEREGO……. .

EGO

EGO • It develops in 2 nd -6 th month of life when the infant begins to distinguish between itself & the outside world. • REALITY PRINCIPLE

• Acts as a mediator between Id and Superego. • Ego is concerned with memory and judgement. It is the seat of consciousness which exploits the environment to the maximum extent in order to find ways for achieving gratification in socially accepted ways. • It develops after birth, expands with age and delays, modifies and controls the Id impulses.

• The major function of ego is the formation of Defence mechanism. These ward off unconcious and unwelcome instinctual impulse from the Id. Thereby reducing the level of anxiety.

EGO DEFENSE MECHANISM

• These are unconscious responses that an individual makes to cope with anxiety. • +ve function: the individual is able to avoid crises. he tries to remain within ethics. • -ve function: prevents individual from realistically coping with life.

DEFENSE DESCRIPTION DENIAL individual refuses to diverge a threatening or unwelcome reality If child has pain in tooth, he does not accept as he is scared of dental procedure. Individual projects personal feeling of inadequacy over others when losing an argument, you state "You're just Stupid; " homophobia PROJECTION EXAMPLE

DEFENSE REGRESSION SUPPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE Age inappropriate response. Behavioural response to a more infantile manner as a result of confrontation with anxiety producing situation. sitting in a corner and crying after hearing bad news; throwing a temper tantrum when you don't get your way pushing into the subconscious trying to forget something that causes you anxiety

THE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

STAGES ORAL ANAL PHALLIC LATENCY GENITAL

ORAL STAGE [birth-18 months] Birth – 18 months. Introduction: In infants the oral cavity is the site for identifying needs. It therefore serves as an erogenous zone. Characterised by passiveness and dependance. Eruption of teeth leads to a more aggressive and active behaviour. The mouth serves as the primary zone of pleasure. Objectives: Satisfaction of hunger by oral stimulation. eg: suckling of milk by mother, help in development of trust.

If child’s needs are not adequately met in this stage traits like optimism or envy, jealousy may develop.

ANAL STAGE(18 months-3 yrs) Characterised by EGOCENTRIC BEHAVIOUR. Child starts controlling bowel and bladder movement. Anal zone is primary zone of pleasure. Function of retention and elimination takes on importance. Child learns to walk, talk and control toilet habits. As a result he becomes more independent compared to the previous stage.

Over emphasis by adults on toilet habits at this stage results in an OBSTINATE BEHAVIOUR in later adult life. This personality is called ANAL PERSONALITY.

URETHRAL STAGE It is a transition between the anal stage and phallic stage. the child derives pleasure from exercising control over urinary sphincter. loss of urethral control results in shame.

PHALIC STAGE (3 -7 yrs) Concerns itself with sex determination. The child attributes greater importance to anatomical difference in sexes. Characterised by a complex called OEDIPUS COMLEX and ELECTRA COMPLEX. The child feels possesive of parent of opposite sex and rivalry toward parent of same sex. Resolution of this complex is difficuly especially in females.

Oedipus complex Ø Young boys have a natural tendency to be attached to the mother & they consider their father as their enemy. Ø Hence they strive to imitate their father to gain the affection of the mother.

Electra complex Young girls develop an attraction towards their father & they resent the mother being close to the father

LATENCY STAGE 6 -12 yrs It is a period of CONSOLIDATION. Characteristics: Maturation of ego takes place Previous drives become passive and there is greater importance placed on peer development and character formation. Further development of personality. There is a temporary truce between Id and Ego

GENITAL STAGE Begins with puberty and is characterised by re opening of Ego’s struggle to gain mastery and control over impulses and superego. Fluctuating extremes between emotional and behaviour are seen. This is due to an individual struggle to attain a firm sense of self. Resolution of these occurs due to maturation occuring during this period.

Sigmund Freud’s Stages of Personality Formation Freud’s Psychosexual Critical Events and Stages: Vertical Related Conflicts to Column be Resolved Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Possible Outcome in Terms of the Emergence of Personality Traits Early weaning results in Over-indulgence yields an pessimism, envy, greed, fear, Weaning: 12 to 18 anal expulsive personality sarcasm, and suspicion. Months Leniency yields an anal expulsive character eg disorganization, carelessness Strictness yields an anal retentive character. –- neat, precise, careful, stingy Oedipal or Electra Superego and adaptive Complexes: identification with the same- Fixation develops a phallic personality that is reckless, resolute, afraid or incapable of close love. Toilet Training: 2 -3 Years Ages 4 -5 sex parent. Oedepus complex, electra complex Sexual Drive Children pour energy such Dormant: Preas sports, same-sex puberty: Ages 6 -12 friendships, and school. Social Rules This person is well-adjusted and balances love and work. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004 Physical sexual changes reawaken repressed needs. Direct sexual feelings towards others lead to sexual gratification.

Pros of Freud’s Work 1. Focused on the influence of unconscious processes. 2. Stressed that events in childhood do influence our adult behavior. 3. Defense mechanisms

Cons of Freud’s Theory 1. Freud had not much scientific data to support his theories. 2. Observations not representative of all types of population. 3. Theory based on upper class female patients. The patients were wealthy Viennese women.

ERIK ERICSSON PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

Psychosocial (Erikson’s) ERIK ERICSSON Stages of Personality Development Written and arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004

• Erikson- a student of Freud formulated his theory in 1963. • This theory is called Psychosocial Theory. • Unlike Frued’s use of organ stages, Erikson incorporated stages- developmental tasks i. e. conflicts which confront the child during similar periods of growth and demand resolution.

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES 1. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust. • Infant Stage: Birth to 18 months The basic needs of the child are met by persons whom he trusts. When these needs are not satisfied he develops mistrust.

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. • Toddler Stage: 18 months to 3 years The child learns bowel control and he is interested in his surroundings. Failure to learn this bowel control leads to shame and doubt.

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES 3. Initiative vs. Guilt. • Preschooler Stage: 3 -5 years of age The child is interested in anatomic differences in the body. Various animals are identified by gender. When identity becomes a problem, it leads to frustration. Failure leads to guilt.

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES 4. Industry vs. Inferiority. • School-Age Child: 5 -13 years of age During this period the child is more bothered about society, school and academic achievement. Child becomes industrious and competent. Failure during this period leads to inferiority.

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion. • Adolescence: 13 -20 years of age The child a teenager now must realize who he is and what he shall become. Identity becomes a problem. There is a goal oriented behaviour and the child becomes miniature adult. Failure to identify himself leads to role confusion.

Disadvantages Of Freuds and Eriksons Theories: Cannot be demonstrated or proven by clinical trial. These are an interpretation of what the child goes through.

THEORIES OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY ØPSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES. - Psychosexual/Psychoanalytical theory –Sigmond Freud - Psychosocial theory – Erickson - Social learning theory – Bandura ØBEHAVIOURAL THEORIES - Hierarchy of needs – Maslow Cognitive theory – Piaget Classical conditioning – Pavlov Operant conditioning – Skinner

COGNITIVE THEORY • Introduced by JEAN PIAGET in 1952. • COGNITION: means perception and interpretation of the facts.

• According to Jean Piaget there; 1. Assimilation: learning new things. 2. Accomodation: alterations and bringing about adjustments in these newly learnt things.

• 3. equilibration;

• Cognition differs from child to child and according to age. • Concept of assimilation and accomodation are essential for the development of thought process. • Assimilation refers to incorporation of new knowledge through use of existing schemes. • Accomodation refers to modification of childs existing schemes to incorporate new knowledge.

Stages 1. SENSORY MOTOR STAGE 2. PRE OPERATIONAL STAGE 3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE 4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

1. Birth to 18 months(sensory-motor): EGOCENTRIC: only bothered about himself, gradually differentiates himself from world around him. • • A period of sensory input and motor output. Reacts to stress by eyes, hands and ears. Every child is born with certain strategies for interacting with the environment As maturation progresses simple reflexes begin to be coordinated e. g. looking along with arm movement resulting in hand watching

• Separation Anxiety(separation from mother) begins at 6 months because of sense of object permanence and visual ability to recognise strangers. • Dental applications: • Child can be given toys while sitting on the dental chair in his/her hand

2. 18 months – 7 years(Pre operational stage): • • • Childs symbolic system(communicating skills) expands. Increased use of language leads to socialisation. This is a transitional process to move concrete operations. He learns to classify things He can recall past experiences. They have short attention span and are very inquisitive.

• Dental app: • Constructivism: child surveying the dental chair , airway syringe • Cognitive equilibrium: child is explained about the equipment or instruments • Animism: child correlates things with other objects

3. 7 – 11 years (Concrete operational stage): • • Childs thinking process becomes logical. There is a shift from egocentrism to relativism (refers to ability to operate from different perspectives and to approach two or more aspects of a particular problem simultaneously) Child has ability to understand others point of view Child is more concerned about present.

• Dent. App: • Concrete instructions like this is a retainer, brush can be given • Abstract instruction like wear the retainer every night and keep clean • Centering: allowed to hold the mirror and see what is being done on his teeth • Ego-centerism: achieved th level of understanding and gets involved e. g. holds the suction tip

4. 12 years and above (Formal Operational stage): • • Child now a teenager is able to think more abstractly Adolescents in this period are more concerned with the hypothetical future. The adolescent learns to solve complex problems. He thinks of ideas and has developed a vast imagination

• Dent. App: • Peer influence and abstract thinking: • Can play an imp. Role in orthodontic appliances and braces

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS – ABRAHAM MASLOW • Maslow believed in self actualisation theory. • i. e. the need to understand the totality of a person.

• Needs are arranged in a hierarchy and as one is satisfied another will emerge. • Starts from most biologic to more psychologic • Motivation is essential • Pain avoidance, tension reduction act as sources of motivation.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • Albert Bandura in 1963. • Considered to be the most complete and clinically useful behavioral theory. • Theory is based on the fact that behaviour is learnt through observation of consequences.

• The learning of behavior is affected by principal element: 1. Antecedent determinant: the conditioning is affected if the person is aware of what is occurring 2. Consequent determinants: persons perception and expectancy (cognitive factor) determine behavior

• 3. modelling: learning through observation eliminates the trial error-search • 4. self –regulation: involves a process of self – regulation , judgement and evaluation of individuals responses to his own behavior

Dental application: • Children are capable of acquiring almost any behavior that they observe closely • Observational learning is an imp. tool in the management of dental treatment eg. , older sibling undergoing dental treatment without any complaint

CLASSIC CONDITIONING • Ivan Pavlov 1927 • Also called Ø Ø Respondent conditioning Pavlovian conditioning

• Classical experiment: salivation on ringing the bell. salivation on ringing the buzzer(stimulus generalisation)

Principles involved: Generalisation Extinction Discrimination

• Dental applications: • Sound of hand piece and sight of dentist

OPERANT CONDITIONING • Introduced BF Skinner – 1938 • Also called as Instrumental Conditioning.

• Considered as an extension of classic conditioning. • Individual response is changed as a result of reinforcement or extinction of previous responses. • According to this theory the consequence of the behaviour itself acts as a stimulus and affects the future behaviour.

• Four types of Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement : Positive Negative • Omission • Punishment

• Four types of Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement : Positive: occurs if a pleasant consequence follows a response Negative: involves removal of unpleasant stimuli following a response • Omission: removal of pleasant response after a particular response • Punishment: introduction of an aversive stimulus into a situation to decrease the undesirable behaviour

• Merits: • Application on children who are difficult to manage • Useful in instilling lifelong +ve behavior in a child patient • Demerits: • Overemphasis on use of nagative reinforcers and punishment in dental clinic

Thank you.