The Water By Dr Rahul Shrivastava Water Is

The Water By Dr. Rahul Shrivastava

Water Is one of the abundant commodities in nature, but is also the most misused one Earth is a blue planet, 71% of our planet is covered by water. But, 97. 5% of it is locked in the oceans, which is too saline to drink and other uses. 2. 4% water is trapped in polar ice caps and giant glaciers, from which only 1% water is used by human for various development, industrial, agricultural and domestic purposes. 2

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l 66% of the human body is made up of water. l At just 2% dehydration your performance decreases by around 20%. l l 80% of all illness in developing countries is caused by water related diseases. l 90% of wastewater in developing countries is discharged directly into rivers and streams without treatment. We should drink at least 1½ litres of water a day. 4

Sources of water Surface Water: (i) Flowing water e. g. rivers and streams (Moorland surface drainage) In general river water contains dissolved minerals from soil such as chlorides, sulphates, bicarbonates of sodium, calcium or magnesium, iron and organics matters derived from decomposition of plants, small particles of sand rocks in suspensions. (ii) Still waters e. g. lakes, ponds and reservoirs ( Lowland surface drainag Lake water has more constant chemical composition. Underground Water: water from shallow and deep spring and wells Rain water: It is probably the purest form of natural water Sea Water: It is probably the most impure form of natural water 5

Types of Impurities Present in water Dissolved impurities: (a) Inorganic salts e. g. (i) Cations: Ca 2+, Mg 2+, Na+, K+, Fe+2, Al+3, Zn 2+, Cu 2+ (ii) Anions: Cl-, SO 42 -, NO 3 -, HCO 3 -, F-, NO 2(b) Gases: CO 2, NH 3, H 2 S (c) Organics salts Suspended impurities: (a) Inorganic e. g. clay and sand (b) Organics e. g. oil globules, vegetable and animal matters Colloidal impurities: Clay and finely divided silica colloidal partials of 10 -4 – 10 -6 mm size Micro-organisms: Bacteria, Fungi, algae and other forms of animal and vegetable life 6

Effects of Impurities in natural water Ø Ø Ø Colour Taste and odour Turbidity and sediments Micro-organisms Dissolved minerals matters (a) hardness (b) Alkalinity (c) Total solids (d) corrosion 7

Hardness of water is originally defined as the soap consuming capacity of a water sample. The soap consuming capacity of water is mainly due to the certain salt of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals dissolved in it. The soap is generally consists of sodium salts of fatty acids such as Oleic acid, palmetic acid and stearic acid. Calcium and magnesium React with the sodium salts of long chain fatty acid present in the soap to form insoluble scums of calcium and magnesium soaps. Other metal ions such as Fe 2+, Mn 2+, Al 3+ also contributing to hardness, but they are present in water only in traces 8

Temporary hardness (carbonate hardness) Temporary hardness is caused by the presences of dissolved bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium and other heavy metal ions Temporary hardness is mostly destroyed by boiling of water. During boiling bicarbonate are decomposed in the insoluble carbonate and hydroxide, which are deposited at the bottom of the vessel. Permanent hardness (non-carbonate hardness) This is due the presences of chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, iron and other heavy metal ions. 9

Hardness is expressed in terms of equivalent of calcium carbonate because it is the most insoluble salt that can be precipitated in water treatment. Dissolved salt Molar Mass Chemical equivalent Multiplication factor for converting into equivalent of Ca. CO 3 Ca(HCO 3)2 162 81 100/162 Mg(HCO 3)2 146 73 100/146 Ca. SO 4 136 68 100/136 Ca. Cl 2 111 55. 5 100/111 Mg. SO 4 120 60 100/120 Mg. Cl 2 95 47. 5 100/95 Mg. CO 3 84 42 100/84 10

Calculate the temporary hardness and permanent hardness of sample of water containing: Mg(HCO 3)2 = 7. 3 mg/L; Ca(HCO 3)2 = 16. 2 mg/L; Mg. Cl 2 = 9. 5 mg/L; Ca. SO 4 = 13. 6 mg/L Molecular weights: Ca(HCO 3)2 = 162; Mg(HCO 3)2=146; Ca. SO 4= 136; Mg. SO 4 = 120; ; Mg. Cl 2 = 95; Al 2(SO 4)3 = 114 11

Calculate the temporary hardness and total hardness of a sample of water containing: Mg(HCO 3)2 = 73 mg/L; Ca(HCO 3)2 = 162 mg/L; Mg. Cl 2 = 95 mg/L; Ca. SO 4 = 136 mg/L Molecular weights: Ca(HCO 3)2 = 162; Mg(HCO 3)2=146; Ca. SO 4= 136; Mg. SO 4 = 120; ; Mg. Cl 2 = 95; Al 2(SO 4)3 = 114 12

Three samples A, B and C were analyzed for their salts contents: Sample A was found to contain 168 mg of magnesium carbonate per L Sample B was found to contain 820 mg of calcium nitrate and 2 mg of silica Sample C was found to contain 2 g calcium carbonate per 500 ml Determine the hardness in all above three sample in ppm Molecular weights: Ca(NO 3)2 = 164; Mg. CO 3=84; Ca. CO 3= 100 13

Estimation of hardness: Hardness are usually determined by two methods Soap solution methods: soaps gives lather with hard water only after sufficient quantity of soaps is added to precipitate all the hardness causing metal ions present in water After precipitation of all the hardness causing ions present in water, further addition of soap gives lather 14

EDTA Method: Hard water + EBT Indicator + 10 PH buffer solution 15

WATER SOFTENING l removal of hardness » Hardness is? . . . primarily Ca, Mg, plus Fe, Mn, St, Al l How is Softening done? . . . Precipitation of Ca and Mg, or Ion exchange of Ca / Mg with ion such as Na 16

Why bother? l Hardness in 300 -500 mg/l as Ca. CO 3 range considered excessive high soap consumption scaling in heating vessels and pipes Even > 150 mg/l may result in consumer objection l 60 -120 mg/l as Ca. CO 3 is considered a moderate amount l 17

Lime-Soda process In this process, all the soluble hardness-causing impurities are converted into insoluble precipitates which may removed by setting and filtration. In the lime soda process, calculated amount of lime Ca(OH)2 and soda Na 2 CO 3 is added in the hard water. The soluble calcium and magnesium salts in water are converted into insoluble compound such as calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide which may removed by setting and filtration. (i) Lime removes the temporary hardness: (ii) Lime removes the permanent magnesium hardness: 18

(iii) Lime removes the dissolved iron and aluminum salts: (iv) Lime removes free mineral acids: (v) Lime removes dissolved CO 2 and H 2 S: (vi) Soda removes all calcium permanent hardness: 19

Now the 100 parts by mass of Ca. CO 3 are equivalent to : (i) 74 part of Ca(OH)2 and (ii) 106 parts of Na 2 CO 3 Lime required for softening: 74 = 100 [ Temp. Ca 2+ + 2×Temp. Mg 2+ + Perm. (Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+ + CO 2 + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) + HCO 3 -] Soda required for softening: 106 = 100 [ Perm. (Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+) + CO 2 + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) - HCO 3 -] 20

Calculate the amount of lime required for softening 50, 000 litre of hard water containing Ca. CO 3=25 ppm; Mg. CO 3=144 ppm; Ca. Cl 2=111 Mg. Cl 2=95 ppm; Na 2 SO 4= 15 ppm; Fe 2 O 3 = 25 ppm. Molecular weights: Ca(HCO 3)2 = 162; Mg(HCO 3)2=146; Ca. SO 4= 136; Mg. SO 4 = 120; ; Mg. Cl 2 = 95; Mg. CO 3 = 84; Ca. Cl 2 = 111 Lime required for softening: 74 = 100 [ Temp. Ca 2+ + 2×Temp. Mg 2+ + Perm. (Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+) + CO 2 + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) + HCO 3 -] Soda required for softening: 106 = 100 [ Perm. (Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+) + CO 2 + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) - HCO 3 -] 21

Calculate the amount of lime and soda required for softening 50, 000 litre of hard water containing Ca(HCO 3)2= 8. 1 mg; Mg(HCO 3)2 = 7. 5 mg; Ca. SO 4 = 13. 6 mg; Mg. SO 4 = 12. 0 mg; Mg. Cl 2 = 2. 0 mg; Na. Cl = 4. 7 mg. Molecular weights: Ca(HCO 3)2 = 162; Mg(HCO 3)2=146; Ca. SO 4= 136; Mg. SO 4 = 120; ; Mg. Cl 2 = 95 Lime required for softening: 74 = 100 [ Temp. Ca 2+ + 2×Temp. Mg 2+ + Perm. (Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+) + CO 2 + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) + HCO 3 -] Soda required for softening: 106 = 100 [ Perm. (Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+) + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) - HCO 3 -] 22

Explain with chemical equation and calculate the amount of lime And soda needed for softening 1, 000 litrs of water containing Following: HCL = 7. 3 mg/L; Al 2(SO 4)3 = 34. 2 mg/L; Mg. Cl 2 = 9. 5 mg/L; Na. Cl = 29. 25 mg/L Purity of lime is 90% and that of the soda is 98%. Molecular weights: Ca(HCO 3)2 = 162; Mg(HCO 3)2=146; Ca. SO 4= 136; Mg. SO 4 = 120; ; Mg. Cl 2 = 95; Al 2(SO 4)3 = 114 Lime required for softening: = 74 100 [ Temp. Ca 2+ + 2×Temp. Mg 2+ + Perm. (Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+ + CO 2 + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) + HCO 3 -] Soda required for softening: = 106 2+ 3+ + [ Perm. (Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ + Fe 23 + Al ) + H (HCl or -

A water sample on analysis gave the following data: Ca 2+ = 30 mg/L; Mg 2+ = 24 mg/L; CO 2 = 24 mg/L; K+ = 10 mg/L Calculate the quantities of lime (90%) and soda (94%) required to soften one million litres of water sample. Lime required for softening: 74 = 100 [ Temp. Ca 2+ + 2×Temp. Mg 2+ + Perm. (Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+ + CO 2 + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) + HCO 3 -] Soda required for softening: = 106 100 [ Perm. (Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+) + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) - HCO 3 -] 24

A water sample have the following impurities : Ca 2+ = 20 ppm; Mg 2+ = 18 ppm; HCO 3 - = 183 ppm; SO 42 - = 24 ppm. Calculate the amount of lime and soda needed for softening. Lime required for softening: 74 = 100 [ Temp. Ca 2+ + 2×Temp. Mg 2+ + Perm. (Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+ + CO 2 + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) + HCO 3 -] Soda required for softening: 106 = 100 [ Perm. (Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ + Fe 2+ + Al 3+) + H+ (HCl or H 2 SO 4) - HCO 3 -] 25

Cold lime soda process: Calculated quantity of lime and soda are mixed with water at room temperature the precipitates formed are finely divided, so they do not settle down easily. Therefore, It is essential to add small amounts of coagulants (like alum, aluminum sulphate, sodium aluminates etc). Use of sodium aluminate as coagulant also helps the removal of silica as well as oil if present in water. . Na. Al. O 2 + 2 H 2 O Na. OH + Al(OH) 3 Al 2(SO 4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO 3)2 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 Ca. SO 4 + 6 CO 2 26

Continuous cold lime soda softener Chemicals (soda+lime +coagulant) feed Hard water feed Softened water Wood fiber filter Stirrer paddles Sedimented sludge (Ca. CO 3, Mg(OH)2 27 27

Hot lime soda process: Calculated quantity of lime and soda are mixed with water at 80 to 1500 C. Advantages of high temperature: Ø The reaction proceeds faster. Ø Softening capacity is increased. Ø No coagulant needed as the precipitate and sludge formed settle down rapidly. Ø Much of the dissolved gases are driven out of water. Ø Viscosity of soften water is lower, so filtration of water becomes easier. Ø This process produces water of comparatively low residual hardness 15 to 30 ppm.

Continuous Hot Lime Soda Process

Advantages of lime soda process: Ø It is very economical. Ø If the process is combined with sedimentation/coagulation lesser amounts of coagulants shall be needed. Ø The process increases the p. H of the treated water thereby corrosion reduced. Ø In addition to the removal of hardness, the quantities of minerals in the water are reduced. Ø Due to alkaline nature of treated water amount of pathogenic bacteria in water is considerably reduced.

Disadvantages of lime soda process: Ø For efficient and economical softening, careful operation and skilled supervision is required. Ø Disposal of large amount of sludge poses a problem. Ø This can remove hardness up to 15 ppm which is not good for boilers.

WATER SOFTENING Ion exchange or deionization or demineralization process: Ion-exchange resins are widely used in different separation, purification, and decontamination processes. The most common water softening and water purification. examples are Ion-exchange resins are insoluble, cross linked, long chain organic polymer with micro porous structure and the functional groups attached to the chains are responsible for the ion exchange properties. Cation exchange Resin after treatment

Resins containing acidic functional groups (-COOH, -SO 3 H) are capable of exchanging their H+ ions with other cations which comes in their contacts, known as a cation exchange resins (RH+). e. g. styrene-divinyl benzene copolymer, which on sulphonation and carboxylation, become capable to exchange their hydrogen ions with the cations in the water.

Resins containing basic functional groups (-NR 2+OH-) are capable of exchanging their anions with other anions which comes in their contacts, known as a Anion exchange resins (ROH-). They are styrene divinyl benzene or amine-formaldehyde copolymerization which contains quaternary ammonium or quaternary phosphonium or tertiary sulphonium groups as an integral part of the resin matrix. These after treated with dil Na. OH becomes capable of exchanging their OH- ions with anions of water.

Process: - The hard water is passed first through cation exchange column, which remove all the cations from it and equivalent amount of hydrogen ions are released from this column to water: 2 RH+ + Ca 2+ 2 RH+ + Mg 2+ R 2 Ca 2+ + 2 H+ R 2 Mg 2+ + 2 H+ After cation exchange column the hard water is passed through anion exchange resin column, which remove all the anions from it and equivalent amount of hydroxide ions are released from this column to water : ROH- + Cl. RCl+ OH 2 ROH- + SO 42 R 2 SO 42 - + 2 OHH + + OHH 2 O Thus water coming out from the exchange is free from cations as well as anions. Ion free water is known as deionized or demineralised water.

Ion exchange purifier or softener Hard water Cation exchange Resin Gravel bed Anion exchange Resin Injector Acid solution for regeneratio n of resin Wastages to sink Alkaline solution for regeneration of resin pump Soft water 36

Regeneration: Cation exchange column is regenerated by passing a solution of dil HCl or dil H 2 SO 4. The regeneration can be represented as R 2 Ca 2+ + 2 H+ 2 RH + Ca 2+ Exhausted anion exchange column is regenerated by passing a solution of dil. Na. OH. The regeneration can be represented as R 2 SO 42 - + 2 OH- 2 ROH + SO 42 -

Advantages: ØCan be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline waters. ØIt produces water of very low hardness. Disadvantages: ØThe equipment is costly ØExpensive chemicals are needed ØOutput of the process is reduced if water contains turbidity. (turbidity must be below 10 ppm)

Zeolite (Permutit) method of Softening of water Zeolite is a Hydrated Sodium Alumino Silicate (HSAS), capable of exchanging reversibly its sodium ions for hardness producing ions in water. The general chemical structure of zeolite is given below Na 2 O. Al 2 O 3. x. Si. O 2. y. H 2 O (x = 2 -10 and y = 2 -6) Micro pores of Zeolite Porous Structure of zeolite v Porosity or cavity size of synthetic zeolite structures can be controlled by varying the Si/Al ratio v Ion-exchange process of zeolite structure is associated with sodium ions 39

Zeolite softener Hard water in Hard water spray Zeolite bed Gravel Injector Softened water Na. Cl storage To sink 40

Process of softening by Zeolite method For the purification of water by the zeolite softener, hard water is passed through the zeolite bed at a specified rate. The hardness causing ions such as Ca 2+, Mg 2+ are retained by the zeolite bed as Ca. Ze and Mg. Ze respectively; while the outgoing water contains sodium salts. The following reactions takes place during softening process To remove temporary hardness Na 2 Ze + Ca(HCO 3)2 Ca. Ze + 2 Na. HCO 3 Hardness Na 2 Ze + Mg(HCO 3)2 Mg. Ze + 2 Na. HCO 3 water To remove permanent hardness Na 2 Ze + Ca. Cl 2 Ca. Ze + 2 Na. Cl Na 2 Ze + Mg. SO 4 Mg. Ze + Na 2 SO 4 Regeneration of Zeolite Bed Ca. Ze (or) Mg. Ze + 2 Na. Cl Used Zeolite 10% brine solution Na 2 Ze + Ca. Cl 2 (Mg. SO 4) Regenerated Zeolite Washings drained 41

Limitations of Zeolite process 1. If the water is turbid ---- then the turbidity causing particles clogs the pores of the Zeolite and making it inactive 2. The ions such as Mn 2+ and Fe 2+ forms stable complex Zeolite which can not be regenerated that easily as both metal ions bind strongly and irreversibly to the zeolite structure. 3. Any acid present in water (acidic water) should be neutralized with soda before admitting the water to the plant, since acid will hydrolyze Si. O 2 forming silicic acid Advantages of Zeolite process 1. Soft water of 10 -15 ppm can be produced by this method 2. The equipment occupies less space 3. No impurities are precipitated, hence no danger of sludge formation in the treated water 4. It does not require more time and more skill 42

Disadvantages of Zeolite process 1. Soft water contains more sodium salts than in lime soda process 2. It replaces only Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ with Na+ but leaves all the other ions like HCO 3 - and CO 32 - in the softened water (then it may form Na. HCO 3 and Na 2 CO 3 which releases CO 2 when the water is boiled and causes corrosion) 3. It also causes caustic embrittlement when sodium carbonate hydrolyses to give Na. OH

Scales and Sludges Formation In Boilers: In boilers, water evaporates continuously and the concentrations of the dissolved salts increases progressively. when concentrations of dissolved salts reach saturation point, they form precipitates in form of loose and slimy, it is called sludge. On the other hand, if the precipitate matter form a hard adhering crust/coating on the inner walls of the boiler, it is called scale.

Disadvantages of sludge formation Ø Sludge’s are poor conductor of heat, so they tend to waste a portion of heat generated. Ø Sludge’s get entrapped in the scale and both get deposited as scales. Ø Excessive sludge formation, disturbs the working of the boiler. It settle in the regions of poor water circulation such as pipe connection etc. Prevention of sludge formation: Ø By using well softened water Ø By frequently ‘blow-down operation’, i. e. , drawing off a portion of the concentrated water.

Scales are hard deposit, which stick very firmly to the inner surface of boiler. Scales are very difficult to remove. Formation of scales may be due to (1) Decomposition of calcium bicarbonate: Ca(HCO 3)2 → Ca. CO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2 (In low-pressure boilers) Scale composed mainly from calcium carbonate is soft and is the main cause of scale formation in low pressure boiler. But in the high pressure boiler calcium carbonate is soluble. Ca. CO 3 + H 2 O → Ca(OH) 2 (soluble) + CO 2 (In high-pressure boilers) (2) Deposition of Calcium Sulphate: Solubility of calcium sulphate in water decrease with rise of temperature. Hence Ca. SO 4 gets precipitated as hard scale on the heated portions of the boiler.

(3) Hydrolysis of magnesium salts: Dissolved Mg salts undergo hydrolysis forming magnesium hydroxide precipitate, which forms a soft type of scale Mg. Cl 2 +2 H 2 O → Mg(OH)2 + 2 HCl (Scale) (4) Presence of silica: Si. O 2 even present in small quantities, deposits as calcium silicate (Ca. Si. O 3) and /or magnesium silicate (Mg. Si. O 3). These deposits stick on the inner side of the boiler surface and are very difficult to remove.

Disadvantages of scale formation Ø Wastage of fuel: Scales have a low thermal conductivity, so that rate of heat transfer from boiler to inside water is greatly decreased Ø Lowering of boiler safety: Due to scale formation, over heating of boiler is done, which causes distortion of boiler tube. Ø Decrease in efficiency: Scales may deposit in the valve and condensers of the boiler and choke them partially. Ø Danger of explosion: When thick scales crack, the water comes suddenly in contact with over heated iron plates. Removal of scales Ø With the help of scraper or piece of wood or wire brush. Ø By giving thermal shocks, if they are brittle. Ø By dissolving them by adding chemicals, (5 -10% HCl, EDTA) if they are adherent and hard. Ø By frequent blow-down operation, if the scales are loosely adhering.

Prevention of scales formation (1) External Treatment: Includes efficient ‘softening of water’ (i. e. , removing hardness-producing constituents of water) (2) Internal Treatment: Accomplished by adding a proper chemical to the boiler water either: Internal treatment: In this process, an ion is prohibited to exhibit its original character by complexing or converted into other more soluble salt by adding appropriate reagent. An internal treatment is accomplished by adding a proper chemical to water either: (a) To precipitate the scale forming impurities in the form of sludge, which can be removed. (b) To convert them into compounds, which will stay in dissolved form in water and thus do not cause any harm.

Important Internal Treatments are: Phosphate conditioning: Scale formation can be avoided by adding sodium phosphate which reacts with hardness of water forming non-adherent and easily removable soft sludge of calcium and magnesium phosphate. 3 Ca. Cl 2 + 2 Na 3 PO 4 Ca 3 (PO 4)2 + 6 Na. Cl The choice of salt depends upon the alkalinity of the boiled water because calcium cannot be precipitated below a p. H 9. 5. Ø Trisodium phosphate is most suitable for treatment when alkalinity is low Ø Disodium phosphate is used when the water alkalinity is sufficient. Ø Monosodium phosphate is used when the alkalinity of boiler water is too high.

Calgon conditioning: Its involve in adding calgon (Sodium hexa-meta phosphate (Na. PO 3)6 to boiler water. It prevents the scale and sludge formation by forming soluble complex compound with Ca. SO 4. Na 2[Na 4(PO 3)6] 2 Na+ + [Na 4 P 6 O 18]2 - 2 Ca. SO 4 + [Na 4 P 6 O 18]2 - [Ca 2 P 6 O 18]2 - + 2 Na 2 SO 4 soluble complex ion

(i) Colloidal conditioning: Scale formation can be avoided by adding organic substances like kerosene, tannin, agar-agar (a gel) etc. , which get coated on over the scale forming precipitate, thereby, yielding non-sticky and loose deposits. (ii) Carbonate Conditioning: In low pressure boilers, scale-formation can be avoided by adding sodium carbonate to boiler water. Ca. SO 4 +Na 2 CO 3 → Ca. CO 3 + Na 2 SO 4

(v) Treatment with sodium aluminate (Na. Al. O 2): sodium aluminate gets hydrolyzed yielding Na. OH and a gelatinous of aluminum hydroxide Na. Al. O 2 + 2 H 2 O → Na. OH + Al[OH]3 Sod. meta-aluminate (Gelatinous ppt. ) Theses sodium hydroxide precipitates some magenisium Mg. Cl 2 + 2 Na. OH → Mg(OH) 2 + 2 Na. Cl The flocculent precipitate of Mg(OH)2 and Al[OH] 3 produced inside the boiler, entraps finely suspended and colloidal impurities, including oil drops and silica. (vi) Electrical conditioning: Sealed glass bulbs, containing Hg connected to a battery, are set rotating in the boiler. when water boils, mercury bulbs emit electrical discharges which prevents scale forming particles to adhere/stick together to form scale. (vii) Radioactive conditioning: Tablets (radioactive salts) are placed inside the boiler water. Energy radiations emitted by these salts prevent scale formation

Priming and Foaming Priming When a boiler is steaming rapidly, some particles of the liquid water are carried along-with steam. this process of wet steam is called Priming. Reasons for Priming: Ø The presence of large amount of dissolved solids Ø High steam velocities Ø Sudden boiling Ø Improper boiler design Ø Sudden increase in steam- production rate. Priming can be avoided by Ø Fitting mechanical steam purifiers. Ø Avoiding rapid change in steaming rate. Ø Maintaining low water levels in boilers. Ø Efficient softening and filtration of the boiler-feed water.

Foaming: Production of persistent foam or bubbles in boilers. This is due to presence of substances (oils) which reduce the surface tension of water. Priming and foaming usually occur together. They are objectionable because Ø Efficiency reduces as dissolved salts in boiler water get deposited on super-heater and turbine blades, as water evaporates. Ø Life of the machinery may decrease as dissolved salts may enter the parts of other machinery. Ø Maintenance of the boiler pressure becomes difficult, as actual height of the water column cannot be judged properly. Foaming can be avoided by Ø Adding anti-foaming chemicals like castor oil. Ø Removing oil from boiler water by adding compounds like sodium aluminate

BOILER CORROSION Decay of boiler material due to chemical or electro-chemical attack by its environment. Main reasons for boiler corrosion are: (i) Dissolved oxygen: Dissolved oxygen in water, in presence of prevailing high temperature, attacks boiler material: 2 Fe+2 H 2 O + O 2 2 Fe(OH)2 ↓ 4 Fe(OH)2 + O 2 2[Fe 2 O 3. 2 H 2 O] ↓ (Ferrous hydroxide) (Rust) Removal of dissolved oxygen: (i) Adding calculated quantity of sodium sulphite or hydrazine 2 Na 2 SO 3 + O 2 → 2 Na 2 SO 4 N 2 H 4 + O 2 → N 2 + 2 H 2 O Na 2 S +2 O 2 → Na 2 SO 4

2. By mechanical deaeration It comprises of a tall stainless tower with different layers capped with baffles to facilitate multiple equilibration. The entire chamber is vacuumized and also maintained at high tempt using perforated heating plates on the walls. Principle: High tempt and low pressure favors lower solubility of gases in water (Henry’s law) Water feed O 2 To vacuum Steam jacket Perforated plate 57 Deaerated 57 water

(ii) Dissolved carbon dioxide (carbonic acid): CO 2+H 2 O → H 2 CO 3 CO 2 has a slow corrosive effect on the boiler material. Carbon dioxide is also released inside the boiler. Mg(HCO 3)2 → Mg. CO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2 Removal of CO 2 Ø By adding calculated quantity of ammonia. 2 NH 4 OH + CO 2→ (NH 4)2 CO 3 + H 2 O Ø By mechanical-aeration process along with oxygen. (iii) Acids from dissolved salts: Water containing dissolved magnesium salts liberate acids on hydrolysis. Mg. Cl 2+2 H 2 O→ Mg (OH) 2↓ + 2 HCl acid reacts with iron (of the boiler) in chain-like reactions producing HCl Fe +2 HCl→ Fe. Cl 2 +H 2↑ Fe. Cl 2 +2 H 2 O→ Fe (OH) 2↓ + 2 HCl Consequently, presence of even a small amount of Mg. Cl 2 will cause

(ii) By mechanical de-aeration water is sprayed in a perforated platefitted tower, heated from sides and connected to vacuum pump.