THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WEST 1450 1750 An

THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WEST, 1450 - 1750 An Era of Change

PROTESTANT REFORMATION § Precursors to Luther § Jan Hus in Holy Roman Empire and Wycliffe in England § Both attacked aspects of church corruption, wealth, practices § Both condemned by Church § Hus executed, but Wycliffe protected by King of England § Wycliffe had Bible translated into English § Martin Luther (1483 -1546) § § § Attacked the sale of indulgences, 1517 Attacked corruption in Catholic Church; called for reform Argument reproduced with printing presses and widely read Enthusiastic response from lay Christians, princes, many cities By mid-16 th century, half Germans adopted Lutheranism § § § Protestant movements popular in Swiss cities, Netherlands Scandinavian kings like movement as it removes Church as a rival English Reformation sparked by King Henry VIII's desire for divorce § § § Organized model Protestant community in Geneva in the 1530 s Calvinist missionaries were successful in France Institutes of the Christian Religion-laid out Protestantism views § Reform spread outside Germany § John Calvin, French convert to Protestantism § Zwingli leads Calvinist like reformation in Switzerland § John Know leads Presbyterian movement in Scotland § Martin Bucer writes pamphlets, lead to rise of Puritan movement in England

CATHOLIC REFORMATION § Church reaction to Luther, Protestants § Charles V, Church condemn, excommunicate Luther § King Henry VIII condemns Luther until goes Protestant § Inquisition unleashed against Protestants by Fernando and Isabel § The Council of Trent, 1545 -1563 § Directed Catholic Reformation § Attacked corruption § Reaffirmed tradition, Bible as co-equal § The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) § § § Founded 1540 by Ignatius Loyola High standards in education Combat Protestants with logic, faith, hard work Saved S. Germany, E. Europe from Protestants Became confessors, advisors to kings

Henry VIII I am, I am § § § § Henry VIII Catherine of Aragon((annulled after over 20 yrs) Anne Boleyn(Beheaded) Jane Seymour(died in childbirth) Anne of Cleaves(annulled) Catherine Howard(beheaded) Katherine Parr(widowed) Age of marriage Henry 18 Henry 42 Henry 45 Henry 49 Henry 50 Henry 52 § Worldwide missionaries Catherine of A. 24 Anne Boleyn 33 Jane Seymour 25 Anne of Cleaves 25 Catherine Howard 19 Catherine Parr 31 Mary I Elizabeth I Edward VI

§ RELIGIOUS CONFLICT Religious wars § Between Protestants, Catholics during 16 TH century § Wars as much social, political as religious § Neither side is innocent of conflict § Civil war in France § Between Huguenots (French Calvinists), Catholic League § Monarchy often a pawn of both sides and nobles § Lasted thirty-six years (1562 -1598) § Ended with new King and Edict of Nantes (rights to Huguenots) § Spanish Armada § War between Catholic Spain (Phillip II), Protestant England (Elizabeth I), 1588 § Spill over from conflict in the Netherlands § Question of heir to English throne: Catholic Scottish Queen or Protestant Elizabeth § Protestant provinces of the Netherlands revolted against rule of Catholic Spain § Originally began as a revolt of all Netherlands against Spain § Eventually split country into Catholic south (Belgium) and Protestant north (Holland) § The Thirty Years' War (1618 -1648) § The most destructive European war up to WWI § Began as a local conflict in Bohemia; eventually involved most of Europe § Devastated the Holy Roman Empire (German states): lost one-third population § Saw independence of Holland, Switzerland from Holy Roman Empire § Ended with Germany neither holy, nor Roman nor an Empire § Scottish Presbyterians revolt § Expel Catholic Queen (Mary) with England’s secret assistance § Regents raised her son as Presbyterian

NEW RELIGIOUS MAP

STATE BUILDING § Italian city-states § § Flourished with industries and trade Each with independent administration and army Levied direct taxes on citizens More powerful absorbed smallest § § § Hundred Years' War (1337 -1453) § Fought for control of French lands § Imposed direct taxes to pay the costs of war § Central government over feudal nobility English War of the Roses leads to Tudor Dynasty Louis XI reduces powers of feudal aristocracy § § § By marriage of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile Sales tax supported a powerful standing army Conquered Granada from Muslims Seized southern Italy in 1494 Sponsored Columbus's quest for western route to China § § § Frequent small-scale wars Encouraged new military and naval technology Technological innovations strengthened armies § France and England § Spain united § Competition among European states

NEW MONARCHS § § New Monarchs § § Taxes, armies as instruments of national monarchies by late fifteenth century Used feudal powers but added new powers to become dominant in society France, England Spain § § § All three united after long wars Kings have new, broad powers Nobles often weakened; new nobles created out of middle classes Enhanced royal, centralized powers § § § Wealthy treasuries by direct taxes, fines, and fees State power enlarged and more centralized Reformation increased royal power § Kings confiscate wealth, land of the Church § Kings sell off lands to middle class, making them loyal to state New law courts enhance royal power § § § Kings tend to function above the law English Star Chambers – do not require warrants, trials The Spanish Inquisition, Catholic court of inquiry, founded 1478 § Intended to discover secret Muslims and Jews , heretics

ATTEMPTED REVIVAL OF EMPIRE § Charles V § Reigned 1519 -1556 § Holy Roman Emperor § § § § Austria Czech lands, Silesia Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia Netherlands Eastern France Milan, Northern Italy § § § Castile Navarre Catalonia Two Sicilies Spanish American Empire, Philippines § King of Spain § Inherited a vast empire of far-flung holdings through marriage § Unable to establish a unified state § Disputes with German nobles, France, and Ottoman Empire § German nobles resented his power and obstructed his every move § Many nobles became Protestant as it was a tool against emperor § Even Catholic nobles supported Reformation as it limited his religious influence § France opposed Charles and supported Protestants, Charles’ enemies § Charles main enemy was Ottoman Empire § France, Protestants and Turks allied against Charles § Charles forces defeat Turks, block moves; unable to take advantage of strength

CONTITUTIONAL AND ABSOLUTE MONARCHS § Constitutional states of England the Netherlands § Divine Right Monarchs limited by war, nobles, wealthy § Characterized by § § § Powers limited by constitutions, bills of right, convention No one is above the law, property is protected by law Representative institutions: rights of oversight, taxation, review, veto § Prominent merchant classes enjoyed unusual prosperity § Commercial empires overseas with minimal state interference Dutch constitutional monarchy evolved out of religious wars England’s road to rights § Constitutional monarchy in England evolved out of a civil war § English Glorious Revolution 1688’; beheading of Charles I § English Bill of Rights 1689 § Absolutism in France, Spain, Austria, and Prussia § § § Based on theory of the divine right of kings § Relied often on bureaucrats, professional armies § Great trappings of power especially palaces, images § Restricted power of aristocracy, legislatures and church § Relied on mercantilism to generate taxable wealth Cardinal Richelieu § French chief minister 1624 -1642 § Architect of French absolutism Prussia began to rise in late 17 th century § Based on absolutism and army § Eventually will unite Germany

LOUIS XIV OF FRANCE § King of France § Called the Sun King § Planets revolve around the sun § Sun gives light, warmth of the solar system § Reigned 1643 -1715 § Bureaucracy § Used middle class for professional bureaucrats § Established intendants tp carry out wishes § Model of royal absolutism: the court at Versailles § Nobles reduced to serving king, state § Became generals, diplomats, ministers § Lived at Versailles where king spied on them § Large professional standing army § Well trained, well paid, well equipped § Kept, enforced order § Mercantilism and Colonies § § Minister Colbert was mastermind behind wealth Promoted economic development: roads, canals Promoted industry, and exports especially luxuries Built large French navy and colonies in North America, India § Rulers in Spain, Austria, Prussia, Russia saw France as model

EUROPEAN STATE SYSTEM § § § The Peace of Westphalia (1648) § § Ended the Thirty Years' War Promoted idea of independent sovereign states Abandoned notion of religion unity Did not end war between European states -Seven Years war largest in wake of Peace of Westphalia (1756) The balance of power § § Diplomacy based on shifting alliances Religion unimportant to determining alliances Destroy no nation Make no permanent enemies Military development costly and competitive § § § New armaments (cannons and small arms) New military tactics Extremely intricate fortifications

THE NATION-STATE § Nation-State § § § Ethnic group with common language, culture Shared history, traditions Shared institutions (faith, politics) Occupying a common territory Ruled by a common government Government’s job § Insure domestic tranquility and happiness § Assumed many of the Church’s old social roles § Multiple ethnic groups destroy nation-state § Belief in Nation-state became new popular ideology § § § Love of your nation above others is nationalism Originated as an elite idea of the aristocracy, educated elite Loyalty to state, king more important than loyalty to church, pope

WAR AND PEACE

Changes § Population growth § American foods improved European nutrition, diets § Increased resistance to epidemics after 1650 s § Life spans increased § Infant deaths decrease § Population growth § European population increased from 81 million in 1500 to 180 million in 1800 § Urbanization § Rapid growth of major cities: Paris from 130, 000 in 1550 to 500, 000 in 1650 § Cities increasingly important as administrative and commercial centers § Agriculture changes § New technologies applied to farming § Draining swamps, animal breeding § New tools to increase productivity § Manufacturing § Mass produced items common: textiles, metal products § Capitalism stimulates production as profitable § New jobs caused people to move into manufacturing from agriculture § New Social Classes § Rise of entrepreneurial class with great wealth § Rise of a technological managerial class

EARLY CAPITALISM § Profits and ethics § § § Medieval theologians considered profit making to be selfish and sinful Renaissance merchants supported changes, arts becoming influential in society Protestant Reformation saw profit, success as signs of God’s Favor § Led to increased influence for urban middle classes § § Use of money replaced barter Imports of gold, silver led to trade imbalances § Mercantilism demanded payments in gold, silver § Spain, Portugal did not support manufacturing § Both countries had to import goods § Northern Europeans demanded payment in gold, silver Too much money chasing too few goods § Inflation resulted § Peasants, aristocrats § Early capitalism § The Price Revolution § § § On fixed incomes Payment in kind economies suffered § Inflation drove real wages down

GRAPHS OF THE DISASTER

§ § COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION The nature of capitalism § § Private parties sought to take advantage of free market conditions Economic decisions by private parties, not by governments or nobility Forces of supply and demand determined price New managerial skills and banking arrangements arose Joint-stock companies § § § Dutch East Indies, English East/West Indies Companies Organized commerce on a new scale Authorized to explore, conquer, colonize distant lands Rise of Manufacturing Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations § § § Considered the founding father of capitalism Society would prosper as individuals pursued their own interests States were to support private interests, free trade

SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIAL PROTEST § § § Rise of urban, rural working class § § Referred to as proletariat Paid low wages in horrible conditions At mercy of price revolutions Many peasants reduced to paid wages Population growth § § Urbanization increased tensions Growth increased poverty Social Tensions § § § Peasant revolts especially during Reformation § In France, Germany rose against landlords § Many sought more radical forms of Protestantism Urban citizens also tended towards Protestantism Persecution of witches Elite and Mass Culture § § Prior to Reformation, there were two cultures, elite and common Two rarely intermixed or cooperated Mass culture such as entertainment Faith often became elite culture The nuclear family strengthened by capitalism § § § Families more independent economically, socially, and emotionally Love between men and women Parents and children became more important

GENDER ISSUES § Witch-hunts in Europe § § § Theories, fears of witches intensified in 16 th century Reformation fed hysteria about witches and devil worship About sixty thousand executed, 95 percent of them women § § § Women needed often to support family by outside work Many women merchants very successful Women assumed new economic roles § § Education was one of few avenues open to women Aristocratic women often educated § § Women ran intellectual salons of France Many very prominent as philosophes: Madame de Stael § Commercial, Capitalist Revolution § Education and Women § Enlightenment saw first major victories for women’s rights

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS § The re-conception of the universe § The Ptolemaic universe § A motionless earth surrounded by nine spheres § Could not account for observable movement of the planets § Compatible with Christian conception of creation § The Copernican universe § Copernicus suggested sun was center of universe, 1543 § Implied that the earth was just another planet § On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres § The Scientific Revolution § § § Science becomes the new authority and challenges faith for control Johannes Kepler (1571 -1630) demonstrated planetary orbits elliptical Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642) § With a telescope saw sunspots, moons of Jupiter, mountains of the moon § Theory of velocity, falling bodies anticipated modern law of inertia § Tried by Inquisition as his ideas challenged Papal infallibility § Isaac Newton (1642 -1727) § Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1686 § Mathematical explanations of laws govern movements of bodies § Gravity

ENLIGHTENMENT § Enlightenment § § Thinkers called philosophes Sought natural laws that governed human society Center of Enlightenment was France Apply reason/science to society, government, law § § Champion of religious liberty and individual freedom Prolific writer; father of Enlightenment § § Life, Liberty and Property; 1689 English Bill of Rights Allowed persons to revolt against an oppressive ruler § § § Popular among thinkers of Enlightenment Accepted existence of a god Ordered the universe according to rational and natural laws § § § Weakened the influence of organized religion Encouraged secular values based on reason rather than revelation Subjected society to rational analysis, promoted progress § Voltaire (1694 -1778) § John Locke § Adam Smith: laws of supply and demand determine price § Montesquieu: checks, balanced government § Deism § Impact of Enlightenment