The Problem The Heart of the Research Process

The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process Chapter 2

The research problem – Subproblems, hypothesis, variables, operational definitions The research question – Components of the RQ, writing a RQ

Criteria for Identification of a Suitable Research Problem 1. The research problem should address an important question so that the answer will make a difference. 2. The research problem should advance the frontiers of knowledge by leading to new ways of thinking, suggesting possible applications, or paving the way for further research in the field. Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -3

Situations to Avoid When Considering A Research Problem Research projects should not be a ruse for achieving enlightenment. self- A problem whose sole purpose is to compare two sets of data is not a suitable research problem. Calculating a correlation coefficient between two sets of data to show a relationship between them is not acceptable as a problem for research. Problems that result in a yes or no answer are not suitable problems for research. Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -4

Finding a Legitimate Research Problem 1. Look around you. 2. Read the literature. 3. Attend professional conferences. 4. Seek the advice of experts. 5. Choose a topic that intrigues and motivates you. 6. Choose a topic that others will find interesting and worthy of attention. Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -5

Guidelines: Stating the Research Problem 1. State the problem clearly and completely. 2. Think through the feasibility of the project that the problem implies. 3. Say precisely what you mean. - Absolute honesty and integrity are the rule! 4. State the problem in a way that reflects an open mind about its solution. 5. Edit your work. Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -6

The Research Question

“an explicit query about a problem or issue that can be challenged, examined analyzed and that will yield useful new information”

Factors to consider to develop a strong research question: • Do I know the field and its literature well? • What are the important research questions in my field? • What areas need further exploration? • Could my study fill a gap? Lead to greater understanding? • Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area?

• Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for improvement? • Is the timing right for this question to be answered? • Is it a hot topic, or is it becoming obsolete? • Would funding sources be interested? • If you are proposing a service program, is the target community interested? • Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the field?

Characteristics of a Good Research Question (RQ) 1. Importance So what? Will the research make a difference? 2. Scope while the research problem should not attempt to solve all the health dilemmas of the world, neither should it be too small

3. Specific should explicitly identify the variables and populations of interest 4. Measurable cannot be a value judgment the concepts contained in the question must have an approach or method that can be measured

5. Contexuality (placement within the framework of prior knowledge; based on prior knowledge) knowledge of previous research studies and their outcomes empowers the researcher to write a hypothesis to accompany the research question 6. Feasibility 7. Realistic time frame months vs. years, subject availability, ethical issues

8. Budget materials, travel, etc… are the costs reasonable? 9. Interest to the researcher research is time consuming and demands substantial self investment; passionate interest is likely to keep the researcher committed to project completion

Spend time crafting a well written question.

Resources Writing a Research Question: George Mason University Tutorial (2 minutes) – http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=XXki. CE_MBLM

Formulating a Hypothesis

What is a hypothesis? Definition: – a prediction regarding the outcome of a study involving the potential relationship between at least 2 variables a hypothesis should not be confused with a theory which is a general explanation based on a large amount of data

When the monitor of a person computer fails to work, the following tentative reasons—or hypotheses-- may be possible: the monitor is not plugged in the interface cable is not connected the monitor is not turned on the picture tube is malfunctioning

A theory is a well established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study.

A theory predicts events in general terms, while a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances. A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted, while a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Generally, a hypothesis should: ① be stated clearly and concisely ② express the relationship between 2 or more variables ③ be testable

Essential characteristics: 1. measurable 2. specifies the population being studied 3. identifies a time frame 4. specifies the type of relationship being examined 5. defines the variables being studies 6. states the level of statistical significance (optional most of the time)

Types of Hypothesis Statements Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis Directional hypothesis

Null Hypothesis (Ho) A statement that there will be no differences between groups, no consistent relationships between variables, or, more generally, no patterns in the data. It is statistically easier to demonstrate or prove something is NOT true

Null hypothesis example: No statistical difference in serum iron between omnivores and vegetarians following the Zone diet for 6 months. • If a difference is found between the 2 groups the null hypothesis is rejected

Distinguishing Null Hypotheses from Research Hypotheses Null hypotheses are used primarily during statistical analyses – we support a research hypothesis by showing, statistically, that its opposite—the null hypothesis — is probably not true. Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -27

Alternate Hypothesis (H 1) The hypothesis the researcher wants to support predicting that a significant difference exists between the groups being compared. In an investigation of a parenteral amino acid solution rich in BCAA and its effect on nitrogen retention: Null: The BCAA solution has the same effect on nitrogen retention as a standard AA solution. Alternate Hypothesis: The BCAA solution enhances nitrogen retention as compared with a standard AA solution

Directional Hypothesis A research hypothesis that predicts the direction of a relationship between 2 variables Increasing the vitamin C content of the parenteral nutrition solution will increase the leukocyte vitamin C concentration in mechanically ventilated patients.

Hypothesis Null Hypothesis Single nutrient Trans fatty acids increase the TC: HDL-C ratio vs saturated fatty acids Trans fatty acids do not increase the TC: HDL-C ratio more than saturated fatty acids Multiple nutrient manipulation Replacing dietary CHO with dietary protein decreases plasma TG. Replacing dietary CHO with dietary protein does not decrease plasma TG

Variables, Operational Definitions

An experiment has 3 characteristics: – a manipulated independent variable – control of all other variables—the dependent variable – the observed effect of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable

Independent variable the variable in a study that is manipulated by the researcher Dependent variable the variable in a research study that is measured by the researcher response or effect that is presumed to vary depending on the independent variable

Extraneous variable – one that may affect the dependent variable and is not related to the major purpose of the experiment • typically affects behavior of the subject • gender, ethnicity, social class, genetics, intelligence, age Confounding variable – one in which the independent and extraneous variables may each have an effect on the outcome of the experiment, and these effects cannot be separated • there are many ways to try and control for confounding variables: RCT, double blinding • cannot always control for all confounding variables

Why Identify Variables? Identification is helpful in choosing (a) an appropriate research design (b) an appropriate statistical analysis Note: identifying independent and dependent variables does not guarantee that the research data will support the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship. Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -35

Define the Terms: Operational Definitions The researcher must precisely define the terms in the problem and the subproblems. Each term should be defined as it will be used in the researcher’s project. In defining a term, the researcher makes the term mean whatever he or she wishes it to mean within the context of the problem and its subproblems. operational definition = the definition of a characteristic or variable in terms of how it will be measured in the research study Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -36

Operational Definition a definition of a variable in terms of the operations (activities) a researcher uses to measure or manipulate it. specifies the activities of the researcher in measuring and/or manipulating a variable.

Purpose of using operational definitions: Ensures that variables are measured consistently or manipulated in the same way during the course of study. Also helps to communicate your ideas to others. Handout

Importance of the Study Discuss reasons for undertaking the study. Studies should not go far beyond any relationship to the practical world; they must have a practical value. Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -39

Ordering the Topics in a Research Proposal In the first part of the proposal, you should outline: ü The problem and its setting. ü Subproblems, hypotheses, and questions presented in a logical order. ü A statement of delimitations, definitions of terms, and assumptions. ü The importance of the study should be discussed either in early paragraphs that introduce the research problem or in its own section. Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -40

Checklist: Evaluating Your Proposed Research Project 1. Have you conducted a thorough literature search to justify the time and effort expended on your research project? 2. Have you looked at your research problem from all angles to minimize unwanted surprises? 3. What research procedures will you follow? 4. What research tools are available for you to use? 5. Can others read and understand your proposal? Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -41

Guidelines: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem 1. Conduct a thorough literature review. 2. Try to see the problem from all sides. 3. Think through the process. 4. Use all available tools and resources at your disposal. 5. Discuss your research problem with others. 6. Hold up your proposed project for others to examine and critique. 7. Remember that your project will take a great deal of time. 8. Remember that the first draft of your proposal will almost certainly not be your last one. Leedy & Ormrod Practical Research: Planning and Design, 10 e © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 -42