The Nineteenth Century Islam Main Themes Islam critical

The Nineteenth Century: Islam Main Themes: -Islam critical in shaping pre-colonial Africa -Reinforced by/reinforcing links with broader Muslim world -Role revivalist movements in generating religious, social, economic change

Pre-colonial Islamic Africa -filters into Africa through world commercial systems: Trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean -in turn provides continued linkage major Islamic empires: Ottoman, Persian, Indian -role of the Hajj

Pre-colonial Islamic Africa -15 th-17 th centuries portrayed as ‘peak’ of Islamic world influence -’long decline’ through 18 th-19 th centuries providing Europe with opportunity to ‘rise’ -perception shaped historiography -question degree to which true, especially in Africa

Nineteenth Century -key changes 18 th-19 th century Islamic world: reformism, revivalism -militaristic expression: jihad, ‘mahdism’ -transformation relations with Ottoman empire: Africa seeking autonomy -transformation relations with Europe: cooperation or conflict? -Islam politicized

Reformism, Revivalism Ottoman Empire key: -attempts modernization, westernization provoking response -movements seeking purer, fundamental Islam -resistance to increasing European influence tied to resisting central Ottoman power: secularism vs religiosity -new reformist movements politicized

Reformism, Revivalism Africa: -takes various forms: -rise new ‘tariqa’ or brotherhoods -mahdism -jihad -used to unify, build new states -effective ‘resistance’ European colonial rule -reshapes societies, economies

Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa ‘tariqa’: Tidjaniya, Qadiriya, Sanussiya -named after Islamic clerics, often sufi based -each with own ‘rules’ of affiliation -spreading into and through Sahara -follows commercial networks -supporting economic and political activities -acting as ‘ideology’ even in ‘stateless’ Sahara

Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Examples: -Kunta (Qadiriya – 18 th-19 th c. Sahara) -al-Qadir (Qadiriya – 19 th c. Algeria) -al-Hajj Umar (Tidjaniya – 19 th c. Mali) -Uthman dan Fodio (Qadiriya – 19 th c. Nigeria) -al-Sanusi (Sanusiyya – 19 th c. Libya) -al-Mahdi (Shi’ism – 19 th c. Sudan)

Jihad States in the Nineteenth Century

Abd Al-Qadir (Algeria) “Al-Mahdi (Sudan)

“Futanke” (Fulani) soldier, Umarian Jihad (Mali) Samory Ture (Guinea-Ivory Coast)

“Mahdi” saviour of slaves (imagined scene)

Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Questions: -how significant was religious base of movements? -to what extent were they ‘local’ in origin? -to what extent were they ‘legitimate’? -were they beneficial to African growth? -how do they relate to other 19 th century ‘themes’ in African History?

Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa ‘Tariqa’ in the Sahara: -closely linked to economic success -’talibes’ (students) labour force -clans ‘owed’ allegiance to spiritual leader (military, economic) -19 th c. conflict and competition increase -religious power vs ‘political’ power -divisions over interaction with European ‘infidel’

Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Mahdism: -shia in belief: emphasis on role of Imam in society – return of ‘last Imam’ -militaristic ‘battle’ – jihad -initial target: Egypt – secular, imperialistic -intervention of British turned jihad into ‘resistance to European imperialism’ -mixed motives of army

Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Jihad: -several examples across West African Sahel -tied to Saharan ‘revivalism’, same tariqa -sometimes actual alliances (eg al-hajj Umar) -real religious concerns (eg taxation, practices of slavery) but also generated by social, economic issues

Jihad States c. 1830

Jihad States in the Nineteenth Century

Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa -issue of ‘bad Muslim’ (eg Uthman dan Fodio): legitimacy? -warfare with what consequences? -feeding into ‘growth’ slave trading -establishment of ‘jihad states’: increase in slave use -economic impact -religious warfare but political state: politicization of Islam

Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa State building: -jihads of al-hajj Umar, Uthman dan Fodio most effective -next generation carried on new state, based on Islamic law and practise -Sokoto largest, most sophisticated economy and administration -Umarian regime more localised, attracting migrants to settle -both resisted Europeans as ‘states’

Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Egypt: -’different’ only to extent embodied tensions with both European and Ottoman powers -rise of Muhamed Ali Pasha -resistance to ‘revivalism’ (Wahabism) -resistance to Ottoman control -role of British -1880 -2: crisis of Islam and Imperialism -key ‘flashpoint’ in Scramble for Africa

Muhamed Ali Pasha (Egypt) “Egyptian Imperialism” (Mohamed Ali Pasha’s empire)

Swahili Coast - Islamic influences came from several directions, over long period time: Egypt, Somalia, Arabia, Persia - Most important process: trade and intermarriage with locals by merchants -Indian Ocean: monsoon winds controlled when ships could move across and around Ocean – merchants forced to spend up to six months on East African coast -married, established families

Swahili Coast - Local chronicles speak of founding of city-states by Persians (Shiraz) – tale of purchasing island of Kilwa with the cloth it took to surround the land, establishes link between commerce and Islam -Archaeology (excavation Mosques on the Isle Shanga) shows growing Muslim community from 11 th c.

Swahili Coast

Swahili Coast -Emergence of Swahili (from Arabic ‘sahil’ or coast) – language of Bantu origin, grammar -large Arabic vocabulary, also Persian words -Mixed ‘Arab-Persian’ influence seen in architecture, literature (poetry – utendi) -Network provided basis for spread of Islam, especially in 19 th C.

Swahili Coast -1830 s Sultan Sayyid Said (Oman) established capital at Zanzibar -Traders of mixed descent: ‘Swahili’ and African (eg ‘Tippu Tip’) -Took language, ‘culture’, religion to settlements far in interior -looked not only to Zanzibar but to traditions of Oman - brought different ‘school’ of Islamic practice: Ibadi - affected social structure, marriage, identity

Swahili Coast “Traditional” modest Muslim dress Celebration of the Prophet’s Birthday

Islam in Africa (2003)