The Nervous System Mosby items and derived items

Learning Objectives Describe the structures and functions of the neurons and neuroglia of the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the diencephalon, and the brain stem. Differentiate between white matter and gray matter. Describe the functions of afferent and efferent nerves. List the components of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Differentiate between the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. Describe the process of depolarization and repolarization of neurons. List the excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters and describe their role in conduction of nerve impulses. Describe the connective tissue layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Explain the function of the cerebrospinal fluid. List the cranial nerves and describe their functions. Differentiate between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems and between autonomic and somatic reflexes. Describe the components of a reflex arc and explain the role of each. Describe the stretch reflex, withdrawal reflex, crossed extensor reflex, palpebral reflex, and pupillary light reflex. Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Neurons Basic functional units of the nervous system High requirement for oxygen Cannot reproduce but can regenerate cell processes if the cell body remains intact Neuroglia (glial cells) - provide structural and functional support and protection to neurons Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Neuron Structure Central cell body (soma or perikaryon) Cell processes Dendrites – receive stimuli Ø Axons - conducts nerve impulses away Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Dendrites Receive stimuli from other neurons and conduct the stimuli to the cell body May serve as sensory receptors for heat, cold, touch, pressure, stretch, or other physical changes from inside or outside the body Short, numerous, multibranched Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Axons Conduct nerve impulse away from cell toward another neuron or an effector cell Single, long process; may be covered with myelin White matter: tissue containing myelinated axons Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Axons Myelinated axons conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated ones Myelin sheath: cell membrane of glial cells tightly wrapped around the axon Oligodendrocytes in the brain and spinal cord Ø Schwann cells in the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Axons Multiple Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes cover the entire length of the axon Nodes of Ranvier: gaps between adjacent glial cells Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Organization of Nervous System Anatomical Central nervous system (CNS) Ø Brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Extends outward from the central axis toward the periphery of the body Ø Cranial nerves originate directly from the brain Ø Spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Organization of Nervous System Direction of Impulses Afferent nerves - conduct impulses toward CNS Ø Efferent nerves - conduct impulses away from CNS Ø Also called sensory nerves - conduct sensations from sensory receptors in the skin and other locations in the body to the CNS Also called motor nerves - cause skeletal muscle contraction and movement Cranial and spinal nerves in the PNS and nerve tracts (bundles of axons) in the CNS may carry nerve fibers that are sensory, motor, or both Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Organization of Nervous System Function: When the nervous system is functioning it is either under Autonomic vs. Somatic Control… Somatic nervous system - actions under conscious, or voluntary, control Autonomic nervous system - controls and coordinates automatic functions Ø Example: slowing of the heart rate in response to an increased blood pressure Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Nerve Impulses Nerves “fire” =impulse being conducted from one end to another Role of the cell body of a neuron cell Cell membrane is polarized when at rest • Example: battery Ø Sodium potassium pump regulates the electrical charge of cell Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Neuron Function Sodium-potassium pump: specialized molecule that helps maintain cell resting state Pumps (Na+) from inside of neuron to the outside Ø Pump (K+) from outside of neuron to the inside Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Depolarization Neuron receives external stimulus Sodium channel opens on neuron cell membrane Sodium ions flow into cell by passive diffusion Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Depolarization Action potential During depolarization, inside of the neuron goes from a negatively charged resting membrane potential to a net positive charge due to inflow of sodium ions Creates large change in electrical charge from negative to positive Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Repolarization Sodium channels close K+ channels open K+ diffuses out of the cell Resting

Repolarization As repolarization ends, sodiumpotassium pump moves sodium and potassium ions back to their original sides Resting state restored Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Neuron Function Resting state - when a neuron is not being stimulated Resting membrane potential - difference in electrical charge across neuronal membrane Ø Results from differences in distribution of positive and negative charges from sodium, potassium, proteins, and other charged ions on either side of the neuronal membrane Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Threshold Stimulus must be sufficient to make the neuron respond and cause complete depolarization “All-or-nothing principle” - neuron depolarizes to its maximum strength or not at all Conduction of the action potential - spreading wave of opening sodium channels in sufficient numbers to allow sodium influx and depolarization Ø Wave of depolarization or nerve impulse Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

$Refractory Period Time period during which a neuron is insensitive to additional stimuli Ø$

Refractory Period Time period during which a neuron is insensitive to additional stimuli Ø Cell is still in depolarization/early repolarization Absolute refractory period - during sodium influx and early potassium outflow Relative refractory period - during end of the repolarization period Ø May be possible to stimulate another depolarization if stimulus is very large Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Saltatory Conduction Rapid means of conducting an action potential Depolarization in myelinated axons can only take place at the nodes of Ranvier Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

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Synaptic Transmission Synapse - junction between two neurons or a neuron and a target cell Synaptic cleft - gap between adjacent neurons Presynaptic neuron - neuron bringing the depolarization wave to the synapse Ø Releases neurotransmitter Postsynaptic neuron - contains receptors for the neurotransmitter Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Synaptic Transmission Telodendron - branched structure on presynaptic neuron Terminal bouton - slightly enlarged bulb on each end of telodendron (synaptic end bulb, synaptic knob) Ø Vesicles in the knob contain the neurotransmitter Ø When depolarization wave reaches synaptic knob, vesicles fuse with the knob's cellular membrane and dump neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Synaptic Transmission Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft toward the postsynaptic membrane Receptors on the postsynaptic membrane bind the neurotransmitter Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Types of Neurotransmitters Excitatory neurotransmitters Ø Usually cause an influx of sodium so that the postsynaptic membrane moves toward threshold Inhibitory neurotransmitters Ø Move the charge within the postsynaptic cell farther away from threshold Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Types of Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Ø Can be either excitatory or inhibitory depending on its location in the body Catecholamines Norepinephrine and epinephrine - associated with "fight or flight" reactions of the sympathetic nervous system Ø Dopamine - involved with autonomic functions and muscle control Ø Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine - inhibitory Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Recycling the Neurotransmitter Acetylcholinesterase - found on postsynaptic membrane; breaks down acetylcholine Monoamine oxidase (MAO) - breaks down norepinephrine Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) breaks down norepinephrine that is not reabsorbed Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Central Nervous System Brain http: //youtu. be/e_m. Prhwp. Z-8 Cerebrum Ø Cerebellum Ø Diencephalon Ø Brain stem Ø Spinal Cord Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Cerebrum Gray matter - cerebral cortex; outer layer of the brain White matter - fibers beneath the cortex and corpus callosum (fibers that connect the two halves of the cerebral cortex) Area of the brain responsible for higherorder behaviors (learning, intelligence, awareness, etc. ) Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Cerebrum Gyri (gyrus): folds in cerebral hemispheres Fissures: deep grooves separating the gyri Mosby

Cerebrum Sulci (sulcus): shallow grooves separating the gyri Ø Divides the cerebral hemispheres into lobes Longitudinal fissure: prominent groove that divides the cerebrum into right and left cerebral hemispheres Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Cerebellum Located just caudal to the cerebrum Area of the brain responsible for coordinated movement, balance, posture, and complex reflexes Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Diencephalon Passageway between brain stem and cerebrum Structures associated with the diencephalon: Thalamus - acts as a relay station for regulating sensory inputs to the cerebrum Ø Hypothalamus - interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system Ø Pituitary - endocrine “master gland” Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Brain Stem Connection between the rest of the brain and the spinal cord Composed of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain Area of the brain responsible for basic support functions of the body Many of the cranial nerves originate from this area of the brain Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Meninges Connective tissue layers that surround brain and spinal cord Contain blood vessels, fluid, and fat Supply nutrients and oxygen to the superficial tissues of the brain and spinal cord Ø Provide some cushioning and distribution of nutrients for the CNS Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Meninges 1. 2. 3. Three layers: Dura mater - tough, fibrous Arachnoid - delicate, spiderweb-like Pia mater - very thin; lies directly on surface of brain and spinal cord Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

EPIDURAL INJECTION SITES • The lumbosacral intervertebral space. • Located between the vertebral periosteum and the dura mater, this space contains nerves of the cauda equina, fat, blood vessels, lymphatics, and, in some species, the end of the spinal cord with the remaining meninges (pia and arachnoid mater). Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Cerebrospinal Fluid between layers of the meninges and in canals and ventricles inside the brain and central canal of spinal cord Provides cushioning function also cooling and “bouyancy” Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Some interesting things… Alzheimer “markers” may be found in the CSF Hydrocephalus “water on the brain” Ø Abnormal excess of CSF in the brain Lumbar puncture “spinal tap” Ø Subarachnoid space between L 3 and L 4 lumbar vertebrae Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Blood-brain Barrier Separates the capillaries in the brain from the nervous tissue Capillary walls in the brain have no fenestrations; covered by cell membranes of glial cells Prevents many drugs, proteins, ions, and other molecules from readily passing from the blood into the brain Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

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Seizures Excessive firing of neurons in the gray matter of the cerebrum Falling/ losing consciousness Ø Uncontrolled motor activity Ø Muscle groups twitch Ø Drooling, urinating, deficating Ø After seizure Disoriented Ø Elevated body temperature Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Possible causes Trauma Ø Toxins Ø Infectious Diseases Ø Ideopathic Epilepsy Ø Medications: Phenobarbital • Decreases presynaptic and post synaptic excitability • CNS depressant • Raises seizure threshold (takes a lot more stimulus) Ø Potassium Bromide • Balance of K+ and Na+ Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Cranial Nerves 12 nerve pairs in PNS that originate directly from the brain Numbered in Roman numerals from I through XII (1 through 12) Each nerve may contain axons of motor neurons, axons of sensory neurons, or combinations of both Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Assignment: Draw a diagram of the brain and its cranial nerves demonstrating location and

Spinal Cord Medulla: central part of spinal cord Composed of gray matter Ø Central

Spinal Cord Cortex: outer part of spinal cord White matter Ø Surrounds the gray

Spinal Cord Dorsal and ventral nerve roots emerge from between each pair of adjacent vertebrae Dorsal nerve roots contain sensory fibers Ø Ventral nerve roots contain motor fibers Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Spinal Cord Dorsal horns: neurons in gray matter that forward sensory nerve impulses to brain or other parts of spinal cord Ventral horns: neurons in gray matter that forward motor (efferent) nerve impulses to the spinal nerves Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Autonomic Nervous System Controls automatic functions at the subconscious level Sympathetic nervous system - nerves emerge from thoracic and lumbar vertebral regions (thoracolumbar system) Parasympathetic nervous system - nerves emerge from the brain and the sacral vertebral regions (cranial-sacral) Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Autonomic Nervous System Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. ,

Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Systems Efferent motor nerves are composed of a sequence of two neurons Ø Preganglionic neuron - cell body in the brain or spinal cord and axon extended out to an autonomic ganglion • Synapses with one or more additional neurons (postganglionic neuron) that are then connected to the target organ Sympathetic ganglion chain - series of autonomic ganglia outside thoracolumbar area of spinal column Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Sympathetic System Sympathetic preganglionic neuron may: Synapse with a neuron within the ganglion chain Ø Pass through the ganglionic chain and synapse with a neuron located beyond the sympathetic chain Ø Usually synapses with many postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic chain or ganglions outside the sympathetic chain Ø Sympathetic postganglionic neuron is much longer than its corresponding preganglionic neuron Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Parasympathetic System Parasympathetic preganglionic neuron travels directly from the CNS to its target organ Synapses with a short postganglionic neuron in the target organ Ø Parasympathetic preganglionic neuron is relatively long compared with the very short postganglionic neuron Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Table 13 -3. Effects of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems Heart rate Force of heart contraction Diameter of bronchioles Diameter of pupil Gastrointestinal motility, secretions, and blood flow Diameter of skin blood vessels Diameter of muscle blood vessels Diameter of blood vessels to kidney Sympathetic System Effect Increases (dilates) Decreases Increases Decreases Parasympathetic System Effect Decreases No significant effect Decreases (constricts) Increases No significant effect Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Neurotransmitters and Receptors Primary neurotransmitter of sympathetic nervous system is norepinephrine Adrenergic neurons - neurons that release norepinephrine Ø Epinephrine and norepinephrine also released from adrenal medulla Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Neurotransmitters and Receptors Blood vessels in skin, GI tract, and skeletal muscle have adrenergic (catecholamine) receptors to epinephrine or norepinephrine Alpha 1 - adrenergic receptors - cause vasoconstriction of the skin, GI tract, and kidney 2. Beta 1 -adrenergic receptors - increase heart rate and force of contraction 3. Beta 2 -adrenergic receptors - cause bronchodilation 1. Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Neurotransmitters and Receptors Primary neurotransmitter of parasympathetic nervous system is acetylcholine Ø Cholinergic neurons - neurons that release acetylcholine Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors - on postganglionic neurons of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems and between motor neurons and muscle Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors - on target organs and tissues supplied by the postganglionic neuron of the parasympathetic nervous system Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

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Reflexes Somatic reflexes - involve contraction of skeletal muscles Autonomic reflexes - regulate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and endocrine glands Contralateral reflex - starts on one side of body and travels to opposite side Ipsilateral reflex - stimulus and response are on the same side of the body Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Reflex Arc Sensory receptor sends an action potential along the sensory neuron to the gray matter of the spinal cord or brain stem Sensory neuron synapses with other neurons; incoming sensory impulse integrated with other impulses from other sensory neurons Integrated response of the reflex is sent out by the motor neuron, which ends at the target organ Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Stretch Reflex Monosynaptic reflex arc Involves a sensory neuron and a motor neuron Ø Only one synapse between them without any interneurons Ø Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Withdrawal Reflex Also called flexor reflex Several interneuron synapses Results in contraction or flexing of muscles Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Crossed Extensor Reflex Contralateral reflex If withdrawal reflex initiated, afferent sensory neuron synapse with interneurons Ø Causes contraction of opposite extensor muscles Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

CNS Moderation of Reflexes Upper CNS normally produces an inhibitory effect on the reflex arcs With injury, intact reflex arcs caudal to the spinal cord trauma become hyperreflexive Trauma where reflex arc enters or leaves the spinal cord, or damage to the sensory nerve or motor nerve of the reflex, results in either hyporeflexive or absent reflex arcs Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Other Clinically Significant Reflexes Palpebral reflex arc: light tap on the medial canthus of the eye produces a blink of the eyelids. Pupillary light reflex (PLR): normal response to shining light in the eye of an animal is for the iris in both eyes to constrict Ø Shining the light in one eye causes a constriction in both eyes Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc. , an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.