THE NATURE OF ENQUIRY SETTING THE FIELD LOUIS

THE NATURE OF ENQUIRY: SETTING THE FIELD © LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION AND KEITH MORRISON © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER The search for truth Two conceptions of social reality Positivism The assumptions, nature and tools of science The scientific method Criticisms of positivism and the scientific method Post-positivism Naturalistic approaches Normative and interpretive paradigms Phenomenology, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism, constructionism • Criticisms of naturalistic and interpretive approaches • Post-positivism, postmodernism and post-structuralism • Complexity theory © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors • • •

PARADIGMS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH Positivist Interpretive Mixed methods Postpositivist Poststructuralist Postmodernist Complexity theory © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

POSITIVISM (MACRO) Natural science Nomothetic laws Objectivity Prediction Control, manipulation Generalization Causality Quantification, large scale © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

POSITIVIST DESIGN IDENTIFY TOPIC REVIEW PREVIOUS LITERATURE LOOK FOR ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS FORMULATE HYPOTHESIS DESIGN RESEARCH COLLECT DATA ANALYSE DATA START PROCESS AGAIN NO REPORT YES FINDINGS © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

POSITIVIST METHODS Experiments Tests Surveys © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

POST-POSITIVISM • Our knowledge of the world is not absolute but partial, conjectural, falsifiable, challengeable, provisional, probabilistic and changing. There is no absolute truth, but probabilistic knowledge only. • No once-and-for-all foundational knowledge and grand narratives of a singular objective reality, discoverable through empiricism, positivism, behaviourism and rationalism. • Tentative speculation in which multiple perspectives, claims and warrants are brought forward by the researcher. • No theory-free observations; different theories can support specific observations/facts. Social facts, ways of thinking and observing, are social constructions rather than objectively and universally true. • The values, biographies, perceptions, theories, environment and existing knowledge of researchers influence what is being observed. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

POST-POSITIVISM • Facts and observations are theory-laden and value-laden. The separation of fact and value in positivism is unsustainable. • Facts and theories are fallible. • There exists an objective reality, but there is a pluralist view of multiple, coexisting realities rather than a single reality. • The scientific method holds, but strong theories are contingent on their ability to withstand ‘severe tests’ of their falsifiability. • Discoveries are subject to future falsification in the light of new evidence. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

Naturalistic Intentionality Subjectivity Agency Specific, Contextbound Idiographic, nongeneralizable INTERPRETIVE PARADIGM Multiple perspectives Understand interpret Fluidity, change © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

NATURALISTIC APPROACHES Ethnography Ethnomethodology Phenomenology NATURALISTIC & INTERPRETIVE METHODS Constructionism/ Constructivism Symbolic interactionism © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

INTERPRETIVE/ETHNOGRAPHIC IDENTIFY TOPIC LITERATURE REVIEW RESEARCH DESIGN DATA COLLECTION DATA ANALYSIS ELABORATION OF CONCEPTS/THEORIES REPORT OF FINDINGS © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

NATURALISTIC METHODS Ethnography Narratives Documents THICK DESCRIPTION Observation Interviews © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

POSITIVIST APPROACHES NUMBERS, MEASUREMENT SURVEY, EXPERIMENT ETHNOGRAPHY NATURALISTIC APPROACHES INTERVIEW OBSERVATION CASE STUDY ACTION RESEARCH © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

POST-POSITIVISM, POSTMODERNISM, POST-STRUCTURALISM Multiple realities Phenomenolog y Multiple meanings Contradictory discourses Discourses Interpretive Agency and individuality No grand narratives Difference and diversity Context and temporality Relativist No theory-free observation © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

Diversity in dynamical systems Open systems Holism Tipping points Emergence COMPLEXITY THEORY Relationships Non-linear systems Complex adaptive systems Selforganization Connectedness Feedback, communication Emergent order © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors