The Mongols The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan

The Mongols

The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan • Mongols epitomized nomadic society and culture: survival depended on herds, riding horses essential (boys and girls learned young), basic unit was the tribe, which was divided into kin-related clans, with leaders elected by the free men of the group • Leadership skills= courage in battle, ability to forge alliances

The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan • Mongols earlier had enjoyed moments of power and had carved out kingdoms in northern China in 4 th and 10 th centuries. 12 th century Kabul Khan (Chinggis’ grandfather) defeated Qin attack against them • Temujin (Chinggis Khan) born in the 1170 s and came to power as a teenager when his father was poisoned. Other chiefs did not want to follow him, so they didn’t and his encampment was attacked by a rival tribe, who took him prisoner in 1182. He escaped and banded together with a more powerful Mongol chieftain. • He avenged the insults against him and rose to be a powerful warrior and then others wanted to join him • 1206 - at a kuriltai (meeting of all Mongol chieftains) was elected the khagan- supreme ruler of all Mongol tribes (united

Building the Mongol War Machine • Men of the tribe natural warriors. Short bows- most devastating weapon- could fire arrows with accuracy and speed without breaking horse’s stride and arrow could hit a distance 400 yards away • Khan brought organization and discipline. Old clan rivalries superseded by devotion to the khagan • Mongol forces divided into tumens, each with 10, 000 warriors. Each tumen divided into units of 1000, 100, and 10 warriors • Messenger units, map units • By 13 th century they were best trained, most experienced, most mobile soldiers in the world

Conquest: The Mongol Empire under Chinggis Khan • Saw his people with destiny to conquer the known world. Loved battle. • Began in 1207. First conquered Tangut kingdom of Xi Xia in northwest China and then the Qin Empire. Mongol armies quickly adapted to new setting in China and used captured Chinese artisans to perfect new weapons like battering rams, catapults that hurled explosive balls, and bamboo rockets that spread fire • Typically devastated all towns it came into contact with. Some people sold into slavery. Some towns which surrendered were required to pay tribute.

First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China • 1219 annexed the Kara Khiai (an earlier Mongol empire) • Next attacked Khwarazm Empire of Muhammad Shah II, who at first didn’t believe in the strength of the Mongols but was quickly overpowered • Common strategy: attack, fake defeat to bring out enemy forces, attack again • Khan brought thousands of Turkic horsemen under his rule • 1227 Khan dies but had established an empire from eastern Persia to North China Sea

Life Under the Mongol Imperium • Astute and tolerant rulers • Khan, though illiterate, like to learn from people he conquered • Established new capital at Karakorum • Religious tolerance • Peace and prosperity throughout the empire

The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire • 1226 - turned east to complete conquest of China, fell ill and died in August 1227 • Empire divided between three sons and Batu, a grandson of Jochi • Ogedei, 3 rd son, elected grand khan. Good diplomat. Directed conquest westward towards Russia, Europe and paid the price for peace within the empire

The Mongol Drive to the West • Golden Horde, under leadership of Batu, began invasion of Russia in 1236 • 1236 -1238 and later in 1240 s (Tatars or Tartarspeople from hell) carried out the only successful winter invasions in Russia. Took down everyone except for Novgorod and Kiev. Russia weak and not united, which made invasion easy • 1240 Kiev devastated (only spared the Saint Sophia cathedral) Novgorod spared again

Russia in Bondage • 2 and ½ centuries of Mongol dominance in Russia • Peasantry in bad position because they had to give crops and labor to princes and Mongol overlords • Some cities benefited- esp. Moscow, which became a tribute collector and after 1328 used its status to eventually become the defender of Russia and launched an attack on Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikova, which they won • Turning point in Russia’s history: changes in Russian military organization, political style of Russian rulers, status of Moscow, cut off from key developments in western Europe like the Renaissance and Reformation

Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe • Early on Christian leaders in Europe happy about Mongol dominance because Christians under Muslim rule were worse off. Mythical Prestor John- story of a monarch cut off from Europe by Muslims and was returning to power • Rulers slow to realize threat of Khan • 1240 Hungarians surrender under the leadership of King Henry of Silesia and this opens way to dominate Adriatic Sea region in the south to Poland German states in north • Death of Ogedei makes Batu flee back to Karakorum in preparation for struggle for succession, so Europe spared large Mongol invasion

The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartland • Hulegu, another grandson of Chinggis Kahn and ruler of Ilkhan portions of the Empire. Captured and destroyed Baghdad in 1258. Murder of Abbasid caliph ended the dynasty that ruled Islamic world for 8 centuries • 1260 defeated by armies of Mamluk, slave dynasty of Egypt • Hulegu stopped when his cousin Berke, new leader of Golden Horde, converted to Islam

The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History • Assault on southern Song dynasty led by Kubilai Khan, grandson of Chinggis • Hard place for Mongols to conquer 1235 -1279 constantly on the march. 1260 Kubilai assumed title of great khan (despite cousins in other empires). 1271 changed the name of his Mongol regime to Chinese dynastic title. Yuan. Kubilai then ruled most of China • Kubilai passed laws to preserve distinction between Mongol and Chineseno intermarriage, no friendships, scholars couldn’t learn Mongolian language • BUT Kubilai fascinated by Chinese civilization. Capital at Tatu (present-day Beijing). Surrounded himself with Chinese advisors • New social structure- Mongols on top, then central Asian nomadic and Muslim allies , then north Chinese, then ethnic Chinese and minority people of the south

Gender roles and Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Culture • Mongol women strong, riders, hunters, wouldn’t submit to Chinese culture • Chabi- wife of Kubilai- exemplifies this strength and independence. She advised her husband often

Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influence • Cosmopolitan couple attracted many foreigners- esp. Muslims, Persians, and Turks, which made many advancements in China • Welcomed travelers and emissaries in court (Marco Polo from Venice has most famous account of this)

Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance • Most of scholar-gentry still viewed Khan as a Mongol overlord, who was an uncouth barbarian, who endangered Chinese tradition • Also, he promoted the artisans and merchants, which further alienated the scholar-gentry class • Amazing navy • Cities flourished, trade flourished, art flourished (The Romance of the West Chamber- famous Chinese dramatic work) • Favorable policies towards peasants

The Fall of the House of Yuan • Slow erosion of Mongol military power- defeats by Japanese and later Vietnam and Java • Kubilai’s successors lacked capacity for leadership • By 1350 s signs of decline present: banditry, piracy, famine, secret religious sects • Led to rise of Ming dynasty under the leadership of a man from a poor peasant family: Ju Yuanzhang

Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur • Turks • Timur-i Lang (Timur the Lame) interesting personalityhighly cultivated on the one hand vicious on the other • Began conquests in Persia, Fertile Crescent, India, and Russia in 1360 s from base in Samarkand • Smaller than Mongols but more ferocious – pyramids of skulls • His rule did not bring increased trade, peace, nor crosscultural exchanges • 1405 - died and successors fought for power and his empire was pulled apart

Reflection In the end, is Ghengis Khan a hero or villain? How barbaric were the “barbarians”?