The ItalianEthiopian War Throughout history it has been

The Italian-Ethiopian War “Throughout history, it has been the inaction of those who could have acted; the indifference of those who should have known better; the silence of the voice of justice when it mattered most; that has made it possible for evil to triumph. ” --Haile Selassie

Historical Background of the Italian-Ethiopian Conflict • On March 1, 1896, Italy invaded Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) in hopes of expanding its colonial empire and demonstrating to the world that it should be taken seriously as a great power. The Italian peninsula was only united as a nation some twenty-five years earlier under the guidance of France and Prussia. Filled with a nationalistic flare, the inexperienced Italian military took on Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II and his one hundred thousand Ethiopians encamped around the town of Adowa is located in the rugged mountainous region of Ethiopia near the Eritrean border.

The “Stain of Adowa” • By the time the daylong battle was over, nearly four thousand Italian soldiers were dead and nineteen hundred had been taken prisoners. This military debacle has often been considered the "greatest single disaster in European colonial history. " Because of this humiliating defeat, the Italians routinely referred to this event as the "Stain of Adowa. " National hero and poet Gabrielle D'Annunzio referred to this defeat as "the scar, yes, the shameful scar of Adowa. " Revenge for Adowa became a central theme for Italian nationalists in the early 20 th Century.

Seeking Revenge • No Italian of the postwar era desired revenge for Adowa more than Il Duce, Benito Mussolini. A victory over the Ethiopians would greatly enhance the image of Mussolini and the Italian nation. A victory would:

The Benefits of Revenge 1. 2. 3. 4. Allow Mussolini to divert the public's attentions away from the struggling Italian economy. Italy was a poor nation, in particular in the South where the standard of living remained very low. Literacy rates remained sub-par and political corruption was rampant. Internationally, Italy was recognized as an important power, but not a great power. The Italian military did not have an impressive resume and the empire was not as expansive as the great nations. Thus, Italy was ranked behind the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and France. Force the Germans to pay more attention to Italy. Mussolini initially feared Hitler and his Nazi regime. Il Duce did not want to create a Continental rival with Der Fuhrer. Calm the anti-Mussolini sentiment developing amongst the Blackshirts. Many of the Blackshirts felt that Mussolini was lacking their revolutionary zeal and that he was steering the nation away from the fascist doctrine of nationalizing big businesses, confiscating church property, and abolishing the stock exchange. When Mussolini ordered the Blackshirts to have more self-control and to avoid street brawling, many began to refer to Il Duce as a "dictatorship of soft cheese. "

The Need to Expand • In the eyes of Mussolini, imperialist expansion was a way to handle national failings and insecurities. He claimed that Italy needed colonies because: 1. Italy's growing population needed more living space. Mussolini eventually contradicted this argument when he called for an increase in the nation's birthrate and stated that the peninsula could support an additional 20 million people. 2. Colonialism could provide the Italians with a much needed economic boost. 3. The colonies could provide jobs and cut into the unemployment rate. 4. Managing the colonies would give the Blackshirts something constructive to do.

The Need to Expand 5. New colonialism could bring forth a patriotic feeling amongst the Italians and might rub off onto the Ethiopian ras (princes). 6. By controlling colonies in Northern Africa, Britain and France would be forced to respect the expansive Italian empire. In addition, these nations would have to recognize that the Mediterranean was once again a "Roman lake. ” 7. Germany, with no colonies of her own, would have to accept her status as a second-class nation behind the New Rome. 8. Acquiring colonies could lead to a war, which was to the liking of Mussolini. In his eyes, war could serve as an uplifting experience and is a true test to a nation's vitality. Mussolini told his generals that it was better to live "one day as a lion than a hundred days as a sheep. "

Successful Revenge a Real Possibility • Avenging the Stain of Adowa was viewed as an attainable and justifiable goal for Il Duce. Ethiopia lays between Eritrea and Italian Somalia. Both of these nations were already Italian colonies. Thus, Ethiopia was cutting off communication between the two existing colonies. By conquering Ethiopia, Italy could create a huge colony stretching across the Horn of Africa from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. It was also believed that Ethiopia was blessed with large deposits of gold, making it desirable for industrial imperialists. For the moralists, most Italians viewed the Ethiopians as uncivilized savages living under a government filled with corruption and brutality. By annexing Ethiopia, these people could now be civilized under European laws.

Only a Quick War is Acceptable • Before going to war with Ethiopia, Mussolini made it clear to his generals that he wanted a quick war. The Italian forces had to be back home before Germany had rearmed herself and became a player once again in European politics. – When Hitler ascended to the Chancellorship position, Mussolini became even more alarmed. Hitler's desire to rearm Germany and to reunite Austria to the Reich was well known. Even though the Austrian Nazi putsch (July 1934) failed, Mussolini was convinced that Germany was on the rise again.

Anything But a “Treaty of Friendship” • As early as 1925, Mussolini was planning to invade Ethiopia. However, three years later, Italy signed a "treaty of friendship" with Ethiopia. This façade agreement was a way for the Italians to infiltrate the economic and political structures of Ethiopia before the invasion began. He told his generals that with the success of this treaty along with the growing Italian military, he expected to be in full control of Ethiopia no later than 1935.

The Ethiopian Empire • The Ethiopian Empire was one of the oldest in the world. The Ethiopian rulers can trace their ancestry back to Menelik I, believed to be the son of the queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Jerusalem. The nation was converted to Christianity in the 4 th Century A. D. by their leader, who declared his people loyal to the Coptic church of Egypt.

Ethiopia Goes International • Following in succession of the great Ethiopian leaders was Ras Tafari Makonnen. Before becoming emperor, Makonnen, at the age of 32, made a tour of Europe in 1924 to meet with foreign dignitaries. He made stops in Berlin, Brussels, Amsterdam, Stockholm, London, Geneva, and Rome. He was greeted with open-arms in all of his stops, except in Rome. This tour served as a way for Europe to meet the future leader of Ethiopia and for Makonnen to learn the importance of publicity and diplomacy.

Makonnen The Great • Upon returning to Europe, Makonnen began to devote his efforts to modernizing Ethiopia in the style of Europe. Some even began to call Makonnen the "African Peter the Great" (bringing his nation from "backwardness" into "modernity"). Unfortunately, his biggest challenges came from the more conservative, traditional-minded Ethiopians who were against spending the nation's finances on paved roads, plumbing, and hospitals. But he was able to fend off these critics and improve the nation in various ways. This included:

Modernizing Ethiopia 1. Improving the transportation system by paving roads. 2. Improving medical care in the larger communities. 3. He issued a decree that outlawed the buying and selling of slaves. If anyone was caught engaging in the enslaving business, they were beheaded. 4. In 1923, Makonnen assisted in bringing his nation into the League of Nations. One nation that supported their admission was Italy thought that in return for sponsoring Ethiopia, the Ethiopians would agree to become a protectorate of Italy. This did not occur.

The Reign of Haile Selassie • In 1930, when Empress Zauditu died, Ras Tafari Makonnen ascended to the imperial throne. He now took the name "His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I. " The coronation of Haile Selassie (meaning “Power of the Trinity") took place in the new capital of Addis Ababa.

Selassie Continues to Modernize Ethiopia • Sometimes referred to as the "King of Kings" or as "The Lion of Judah", Selassie began to make immediate changes. During his first year:

A Written Set of Laws 1. Selassie established the first constitution of Ethiopia. He modeled the constitution after the Japanese imperial constitution of 1889. He chose the Japanese model because Selassie wanted to repeat what the Meiji emperor did in Japan (1867 -1912), in Ethiopia. 2. Selassie had a new penal system written which was more specific in terms of laws and punishments. Suspected criminals would now have their punishment for their crime(s) in writing.

The Walwal Incident • In November 1934, a British-Ethiopian commission visited the town of Walwal (or Welwel), the point where Ethiopia, British Somaliland, and Italian Somaliland converged. Located in eastern Ethiopia, Walwal is still considered an oasis for the locals. Walwal is blessed with a complex of wells. The intention of the British-Ethiopian commission was to establish the exact boundaries separating the three territories. When they arrived the wells were being guarded by Somali troops under the command of the Italian military. Italy regarded the wells as theirs.

The Fighting Begins Tensions continued to mount and fighting eventually broke out on December 5 th. Ten minutes into the fighting, three Italian planes and two tanks arrived. By the time the fighting stopped, there were 107 Ethiopians dead and 45 wounded. The Somali's suffered 30 deaths and 100 wounded. The Italians had no deaths or injuries. This became known as the Incident at Walwal.

An Ultimatum is Issued • Following the Walwal Incident, Ethiopia requested that the dispute be settled in the League of Nations. This was considered an insult to Mussolini who refused to go to arbitration in the international court. On December 11 th, Mussolini issued an ultimatum to the Ethiopian government. The Ethiopians were expected to:

Ethiopia is Blamed 1. Apologize for the Walwal Incident. 2. The surviving Ethiopian soldiers were to salute the Italian flag. 3. The Ethiopians were to pay a large indemnity to Italy. 4. The guilty parties (for fighting) were expected to be punished by the Ethiopian government.

General De Bono is Sent to Ethiopia • Before the Ethiopians could respond to this ultimatum, Mussolini drafted the "Directive and Plan of Action for the Resolution of the Italo. Ethiopian Conflict" which called for "the destruction of the Ethiopian armed forces and the total conquest of Ethiopia. " At the same time, Mussolini ordered General Emilio De Bono to sail for Africa.

• Mussolini was not concerned about the international reaction to his treatment of Ethiopia because:

France and Great Britain See Eye To Eye France and Great Britain made it known that they considered Ethiopia as part of the Italian sphere of influence in Africa. 1. • The day that De Bono set sail for Ethiopia (January 7, 1935), France signed an agreement with Italy. France agreed to allow Italy to have free reign in the Ethiopian economy as long as it appeared that the Ethiopians were sovereign. In addition, France would support Italy's endeavors to keep Austria independent of Germany. In exchange, France would maintain control of the railway running from Addis Ababa to Djibouti, in French Somaliland. • The British colonial government in Africa considered the Ethiopians to be "bad neighbors. " Selassie could not control the various tribes in the south and west.

Mussolini Knows World Politics 2. Mussolini knew that the Western powers considered him an invaluable ally in their efforts to curtail Hitler and his German nation. 3. The large Italian-American population made it difficult for President Roosevelt to commit troops to the preservation of Ethiopian independence. Because of the isolationist mindset that plagued Congress, the United States decided to forbid shipments to both Italy and Ethiopia.

The French Begin to Relocate Troops By having peaceful relations with the Italians, France could now transfer some of their military divisions away from the Alps in the north to the Maginot Line.

The Stresa Front • Three months after the deployment of De Bono (April 11 -14),

Hitler Plays To Mussolini’s Liking • Realizing that the demonstrations and publications by the political left (which tended to support Ethiopia) and the political right (which tended to support Italy) would eventually lead to tensions within these European nations, Hitler knew that these countries would distance themselves from Italy would be forced to find new alliances. • To make sure no more bridges were burned between Germany and Italy, Hitler ordered the German press to stop all attacks on Italy, in particular, on its Ethiopian ambitions. In response to this gesture, Mussolini ordered the Italian press to cease all attacks on Germany. In addition, he lifted the ban on the Italian distribution of the Volkischer Beobachter, a German paper often critical of Italy.

Hitler Secretly Helps the Ethiopians While it was apparent that Hitler was endorsing Mussolini in the Italo-Ethiopian conflict, he did fear a negotiated settlement between the two nations. The longer Italy became entangled in Ethiopia, the more time Hitler had to rebuild his military. Thus, he secretly began smuggling military goods to the Ethiopians. In the summer of 1935, Germany sent more than 350 million reichsmarks worth of Mauser rifles, ammunition, pistols, and hand grenades to Selassie's forces.

Prepare for War • Immediately following the Walwal incident, Italy began preparing for a full invasion of Ethiopia. These preparations included:

Italian Military Mobilization 1. Moving thousands of men and supplies into place in Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. Also, Italy began recruiting and training native Eritrean troops. However, Mussolini insisted that for every "native" to fight, there would be two Italians. This insured white "racial superiority" in the Italian forces. By the time the Italian forces were ready for the Ethiopian invasion, there were 200, 000 Italians and 100, 000 natives waiting for the signal to action.

Everyone Has a Price 2. The Italian government spent large sums of money to foster dissension among the ruling class in Ethiopia. The local heads were bribed with promises of spoils after Selassie's defeat.

Ethiopia’s Uphill Battle • Ethiopia was not only undermanned but at a severe technological disadvantage. Ethiopia went to war with twelve planes, of which only eight were operational, and none of them were properly armed. To improve the discipline of his army, Selassie hired military experts from Germany to establish an officer cadet school near Addis Ababa. Unfortunately for the Ethiopians, these students never grasped the higher concepts of military intelligence.

Divide and Conquer • On the eve of the war, Italy had two separate forces. In the south, the forces were under the leadership of Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, Italy's bestknown colonial general. In the north, the Italians amassed their largest force ever for a colonial campaign. Combining the Eritrean divisions with the Libyan forces were tens of thousands of Italian forces.

De Bono Launches the Attack • Put in charge of the entire Ethiopian campaign was General De Bono. On October 3, 1935, De Bono gave the order to begin the invasion of the African nation. Quickly, the air power of the Italians proved its superiority over the Ethiopians. The Italians began to attack Adowa and then moved on to Addis Ababa.

Gaining No Friends Internationally However, the specific targets picked by the Italians created an uproar in the international community. One of the first targets bombed by the Italians was a hospital flying the Red Cross. Civilian communities were attacked leading to the deaths of women and children.

• Three days after the initial fighting (October 6 th), the Italians gained full control of Adowa. Fighting continued on for months. In one particular battle, the Ethiopians suffered eight thousand casualties.

Challenges on the Italian Front • As well as the war was going for Italy, they did have some things working against them. They were: 1. The Italian Fiat tanks were not meant for the extreme heat. The interior of the tanks reached as high as 120 degrees. 2. The "mules" used by the military to move equipment often broke down making it extremely difficult for supplies to be moved to the front line. 3. Tensions were growing between the military forces and the Blackshirts that were fighting. The Blackshirts, who "volunteered" for the campaign, received better food and pay for their services.

Changing of the Guard • On November 9 th, De Bono was fired by Mussolini for refusing to attack Amba Alagi, a town that De Bono claimed had no military importance. Refusing to listen to De Bono, Mussolini replaced him with Marshal Pietro Badoglio.

The League Steps Up • On October 7, 1935, the League of Nations declared that Italy's invasion of Ethiopia violated Article 12 of the covenant. After taking a vote in the assembly, for the first time the League had voted to apply Article 16, provision for sanctions, on a member nation. It was also the only time this would occur. • The League decided to put economic sanctions on Italy, making it too expensive to continue the war. The League thought that Italy could not defeat the Ethiopians in less than two years. The committee put in charge created the following set of proposals:

Sanctions Put on Italy 1. An embargo on the sale of arms to Italy. 2. Repeal the embargo on arms to Ethiopia. 3. Prohibit loans to Italy. 4. Exclude Italian imports to member nations. 5. Put an embargo on exports critical to Italy's war efforts. • The main problem with these proposals is that many member nations (including Great Britain) refused to follow these agreements.

Cutting Off Oil…Nonsense • Another proposal made was to establish an embargo on oil. Italy was dependent on oil imports from League members like Britain, France, Holland, Romania, and the Soviet Union. These nations refused to cut off their oil to Italy because non-League nations, such as the United States, would simply supply Italy.

If Only The League Knew… Three years later, on the eve of the Munich Conference, Mussolini admitted to Hitler, "If the League of Nations had. . . extended economic sanctions to oil, I would have had to withdraw from Abyssinia in a week. "

Bringing Total War to Ethiopia • With Badoglio now in charge of the Italian campaign, the war became ever more brutal. Badoglio began to bomb undefended villages and instituted the widespread use of poison gas. When the Ethiopians put up resistance, Badoglio authorized the use of mustard gas and eventually incendiary bombs. Used until the fall of Addis Ababa, mustard gas was dropped on troops and densely populated villages.

Cries For Help Are Ignored The call for gas masks from the Ethiopian government to the International Red Cross was ignored. It is important to note that the Red Cross was being chaired by a pro-Fascist Swiss.

Selassie’s Desperate Move • On May 2, Selassie left Ethiopia and headed to Europe to plea to the League for assistance. Unfortunately for Selassie, many of his soldiers saw this as a cowardly act, leaving his nation to fend for itself. This would haunt Selassie for the rest of his life.

The Annexation of Ethiopia l The League offered little assistance to the Ethiopians. Mussolini realized that the League was so inherently weak that he declared an outright annexation of Ethiopia. Since Ethiopia was now part of Italy and did not exist, Mussolini insisted that it be removed from the League of Nations. The League recognized the Italian annexation of Italy but refused to remove Ethiopia from the League.

Mussolini Defeats The League • Two weeks later, the League decided to lift all sanctions put on Italy.

• Major powers now realized that the League was a failure and that any international conflicts could and should be handled on their own.

Italy Says, “I’m out” • By 1937, Italy decided to leave the League of Nations. This was the third major power to do so (behind Japan and Germany). More so, as Mussolini's hatred for the Western democracies grew, his admiration for Germany's Hitler began to increase.