THE IBERIAN PENINSULA IN THE MIDDLE AGES Islam

THE IBERIAN PENINSULA IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Islam in the Iberian Peninsula ØDuring the Middle Ages (711 -1492), two civilisations coexisted on the Iberian Peninsula: § Al-Andalus, ruled by the Muslims in the south §Christian kingdoms of resistance in the north. ØThe territories ruled by each of them varied along history.

Muslim Conquest and Reconquista 711 -722 722 -1492 ØThe Muslims conquered most of the Peninsula Iberica. Ø The territory under their control is known as Al. Andalus. ØChristian kingdoms of the north fought to regain control over the territories ruled by the Moors. Ø This historical process, which lasted over 7 centuries, is known as the RECONQUISTA.

Peirods of Al-Andalus ØWe can distinguish different periods in the history of Al. Andalus DEPENDENT EMIRATE OF DAMASCUS INDEPENDENT EMIRATE OF BAGHDAD THE CALIPHATE OF CORDOBA TAIFA KINGDOMS NARIQ TAIFA OF GRANADA • UMAYYAD CALIPHATE • 711 -756 • 756 -929 • 929 -1031 • 1031 -1265 • 1265 -1492

Conquest and the dependent emirate (711 -756) q In 711 a Muslim army crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to plunder the area. Army led by the general Tarik formed by Arabs but mostly Berbers. Visigoth King Don Rodrigo was defeated at the battle of Guadalete (711). Easy victory encouraged them to advance further and begin the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.

Conquest (711 -716) ØThe Peninsula offered little resistance and in a few years was quickly occupied. ØThe main causes for the conquest were: • Superiority of the Muslim army. • Internal conflicts of the Visigoths. • Support from some Jews and Visigoths nobles in exchange for keeping their properties.

Conquest and Reconquista (711 -716) ØThe Muslim invasion was halted in the mountainous region of Asturias, when a group of Christians led by Don Pelayo defeated the Muslims in the battle of Covadonga (722). ØThis battle is taken as the beginning of “La Reconquista”.

Conquest and dependent emirate (711 -756) ØThe Muslims also attacked the south of France, but they were defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Poitiers (732), so they retreated to the Iberian Peninsula. ØThe Muslims called the conquered region ALANDALUS. Ø Between 711 -756 it was a DEPENDENT EMIRATE: a province that depended politically & religiously on the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus. ØThe capital of Al-Andalus was Córdoba

Independent emirate (756 -929) Ø 756: the Umayyad prince Abderraman I arrived in the Iberian Peninsula after escaping from the assassination of his family by the Abbasids. Ø He deposed the emir of Al. Andalus and proclaimed himself INDEPENDENT EMIR. Ø Politically independent ØBut recognized the religious authority of the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. ØDuring this period Al-Andalus suffered several problems: §The Christian Kingdoms advanced from the North and took Zamora. §The Franks conquered Girona & Barcelona, and established the Spanish March. §Revolts of the Muladi who felt discriminated.

Caliphate of Cordoba (929 -1031) Ø 929: Abderraman III proclaimed himself Caliph Ø led to a political & religious independence from the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad, gaining total independence from the Islamic Empire. ØThe reign of Abderraman III was the period of greatest splendour of Al-Andalus: • Reorganized the army and ended internal revolts. • Launched punitive expeditions against the Christian kingdoms to stop their expansion, and forced them to pay taxes to the Muslims. ØCordoba became the most important capital in the West. ØThe prosperity continued under other caliphs like Hisham II, who delegated government to Almanzor, a military leader who achieved great success over the Christians (eg: plunders of Santiago, Barcelona…). Ø At his death (1002) the caliphate fell into crisis.

The Taifas (1031) Ø 1031: the governors of the provinces declared their independence. Ø the Caliphate of Cordoba was disintegrated into 28 small independent Muslim kingdoms called “Taifas”. ØAfter the end of the caliphate of Cordoba Al-Andalus began a progressive decline. ØThe Taifas competed among themselves for territorial & cultural prestige, which made them very weak. ØThis conquest was seen by the Muslims as the “beginning of the end” of al-Andalus ØSo the Taifas asked for help to THE ALMORAVIDS (a North African Muslim Empire). ØThe Christian Kingdoms took advantage of this weakness and charged them taxes (“parias”) in exchange for peace.

The 2 nd Taifas (1145 -1172) Ø In 1172 the Almohads reunified Al-Andalus again and incorporated into their empire. ØFirst the Almohads stopped the Reconquista for a while (e. g. : Battle of Alarcos, 1195) ØThe Almohads were defeated by the Christians in Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa 1212 and the Almohads retreated to north Africa and Al-Andalus was disintegrated again into the 3 rd TAIFAS. ØChristians reached the Valley of Guadalquivir. ØThe BATTLE OF LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA (JAEN, 1212) was a decisive turning point in the Reconquista, since it enabled the Christians to reach the Valley of Guadalquivir. Ø In the following 50 years they were able to reduce Al-Andalus to Granada. ØThe 3 rd Taifas were gradually conquered by the Christians. Ø In 1238 Al-Andalus had been reduced to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.

The 3 rd Taifas and the Reconquista ØDespite the parias, the Reconquista continued. ØIn 1085 the king of Leon, Alfonso VI, conquered the Taifa of Toledo and the Almoravids came to the Peninsula to help the Taifa kings, and defeated the Christians at the Battle of Sagrajas (1086). ØThe Almoravids reunified Al-Andalus and incorporated it into their empire. ØThe Almoravids implemented a strong religious radicalism, persecuting Mozarabs & Jews which led them to an internal crisis that caused the disintegration of Al-Andalus again into Taifas in 1145. ØIn 1147 the Northafrican Almoravids were replaced by a new dynasty, the Almohads. ØThe 2 nd Taifas remained independent until 1172, when they were conquered by the THE ALMOHADS.

Last taifa and the Reconquista ØThe Crown of Castilla conquered the taifas of Córdoba, Jaen, Sevilla, Cadiz & Murcia. ØThe Crown of Aragon conquered the taifas of Mallorca, Valencia. Ø But the taifa of Granada survived for more than 200 years due to: §Their geographical location: the mountains (Sierra Nevada) acted as a natural defensive barrier. § The access to the Mediterranean enabled them to receive support of Muslims from North Africa. §Payment of “parias” to the Kings of Castilla. Ø 1492: after a 10 -year war, the Catholic Monarchs captured Granada. “La Reconquista” had finished!! ØBOABDIL EL CHICO, the last Mulsim king of Al-Andalus. surrendered.

Government & administration in Al. Andalus ØThe government of al-Andalus changed from being an emirate to a caliphate. EMIRATE Ruled by an emir who had political power: Administration Justice Army Foreign policy CALIPHATE Ruled by a caliph who had political & religious power. ØAl-Andalus was divided into provinces called “koras”. ØEach kora had a “wali” (governor) and a “kadi” (judge). ØAn army made up of essentially mercenaries was key to control the territory.

Economy in Al-Andalus ØAGRICULTURE was the basis of economy. § Cereals, wine and olives were grown in dry lands. §Sugar cane, rice, oranges, lemons, saffron, cotton and mulberry needed irrigated land. Ø They built waterwheels in the rivers that dumped the water into channels, which carried the water to the town and fields. ØThis made agriculture much more productive ØLIVESTOCK FARMING was focused on breeding sheep, horses and silkworms. ØFISHING was another source of economy ØMINING exploited iron, copper, lead, gold, silver, mercury and tin. ØTRADE, fueled by gold and silver coins, was very profitable due to the strategic location of al- Andalus, importing luxury goods and exporting manufactured products. ØCRAFTS produced cotton, linen and silk fabrics, ceramic and glass objects.

Society in al-Andalus ØTHE ARABS were Muslims who constituted an aristocratic minority: • had most of the privileges. • were given the best land. • occupied the highest positions in administration and the army. ØTHE BERBERS were Muslims from Northern Africa and were the majority. • had few privileges. • were the ordinary soldiers in the Muslim Army. • led the conquest. ØTHE MULADIES were Christian converts to Islam. • Many people converted so they eventually became the majority of the population. • Some converted because Muslims paid less taxes than non-Muslims. ØTHE MOZARABS were Christians who kept their religion and culture. • had important jobs in the government, but gradually they lost influence. The JEWS were mostly merchants. • who played an important role in the economy of al-Andalus.

Culture in the Caliphate ØFrom the 10 th century, al-Andalus became a great cultural centre. ØIslam encouraged learning a single language, ARABIC. ØThe Muslims introduced Arabic numerals. ØThey invented paper, gunpowder and irrigation systems. ØThey made Important advances in the fields of medicine, phylosophy, engineering, chemistry, mathematics and astronomy. ØPhilosophers such as Averroes and Maimonides stood out and the poet Ibn Hazm excelled in Literature 0 4 AVERROES 1 3 5 ASTRONOMY LESSON

Art in the Caliphate ØPainting and sculpture were used to decorate buildings. ØArchitecture is the most important art in Islam ØMain features: • Poor materials • Abundant decoration • Shades and lights play • Love of water • Supportive elements: PRAYER HALL IN THE MOSQUE columns, pillars, horseshoe OF CORDOBA arches, poly-lobed arches • Flat wooden roofs or domes QIBLA IN THE MOSQUE OF CORDOBA MINARET IN THE MOSQUE OF CORDOBA

First Christian kingdoms (8 th -11 th century) ØEarly 8 th century: some Christians resisted the Muslim conquest in mountainous areas in the north (Cantabrian Mts. & Pyrenees). Ø Gradually these areas developed into independent kingdoms known as the CHRISTIAN KINGDOMS. CANTABRIAN AREA. Led by Pelayo, the Asturians defeated the Muslims at Covadonga in 722. It included Kingdom of Asturias (later Kingdom of Leon) and County of Castilla (later Kingdom of Castilla). In 1037 these were unified under the Kingdom of Castilla y León. q PYRENEAN AREA was made up of Kingdom of Pamplona (later Kingdom of Navarra), County of Aragón (later Kingdom of Aragón), Catalan Counties.

Organisation of the resistance groups GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION Ø The government of the Christian resistance groups changed from the initial tribal chiefs to hereditary kings or counts. ØResettlement consisted in settling down and cultivating the land taken from the Muslims. ØPRESURA OR APRISIO was a widely-used system by means of which the land was occupied by peasants, monasteries and nobles, who eventually became the owners. ØThe territory was divided into districts around a castle, governed by delegates of the king or count.

Organisation of the resistance groups ECONOMY & SOCIETY Ø AGRICULTURE was the basis of the economy • Livestock farming in the mountainous areas. • Cereal agriculture in the flat areas. ØCRAFTS AND TRADE were rare and concentrated in the cities. ØCities were small and became religious centres and there were markets where farmers could sell their products. ØOver time, craftsmen also met in the markets and settled down in the cities. ØThe most important cities in the early 11 th century were Santiago, León and Barcelona ØSociety in the resettled areas was made up of: • Free peasants, who owned the land they worked. • Noblemen, who defended and managed the lands. • Abbots of the great monasteries.

Art in the 9 th and 10 th centuries. The Camino de Santiago PRE-ROMANESQUE ART (ASTURIAN ART) ØLate 8 th and early 10 th century in the Kingdom of Asturias. ØMain features of buildings: §Use of poor materials §Semicircular arches §Barrel-vault roofs §Fresco paintings and coarse sculptures inside SAN MIGUEL DE LILLO (OVIEDO) SANTA MARIA DEL NARANCO(OVIEDO)

Art in the 9 th and 10 th centuries. The Camino de Santiago PRE-ROMANESQUE ART (MOZARABIC ART) Ø 10 th century in the Duero valley repopulated by Christians. ØMain features of churches: §Use of poor materials §Horseshoe arches §Barrel-vaulted or wooden ceilings §Interior decorated from the Beatus (books with commentaries on the Apocalypse) SAN BAUDELIO DE BERLANGA (SORIA) SAN MIGUEL DE LA ESCALADA (LEÓN) SAN CEBRIÁN DE MAZOTE (VALLADOLID)

The beginnings of the Camino de Santiago PRE-ROMANESQUE ART (MOZARABIC ART) Ø In 813 a hermit discovered the tomb of Apostle St. James in Galicia. ØPilgrimages were organised to visit the tomb. ØThe route was also called the French Way or the Jacobean Route because the four branches started in France. ØOver time, the pilgrimage triggered the development of crafts and trade to meet the pilgrims’ needs. ØIt led to the construction of bridges, inns, hospitals, monasteries and churches.

Spanish Romanesque art ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE Ø 11 th -12 th centuries in the peninsular Christian states. ØCATALAN SCHOOL §Linked to Lombard architecture §Blind arches decorate cornices and bodies of towers SAN CLEMENTE DE TAÜLL (LLEIDA) SAN TA MARIA DE TAÜLL (LLEIDA) MONASTERY SAN PEDRO DE RODA (GIRONA)

Spanish Romanesque art ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE ØCASTILLAN-ARAGONESE SCHOOL §Linked to the French Romanesque, to the Order of Cluny or to the pilgrimages to Santiago. §Use of rectangular stones §Vaults supported by transverse arches §Full incorporation of sculpture and painting §The Cathedral of Santiago became the largest church in Christian Spain. CATHEDRAL OF SANTIAGO SAN MARTIN DE FROMISTA (PALENCIA) CATHEDRAL OF JACA (HUESCA)

Spanish Romanesque art ROMANESQUE PAINTING AND SCULPTURE ØSculpture was mainly built on the capitals and facades of churches. ØTwo masters stood out: Master Esteban, author of the door of the Platerias and Master Mateo, author of the Portico da Gloria. ØMural painting was used to decorate the inside of churches. DOOR OF PLATERIAS OF THE CATHEDRAL OF SANTIAGO PORTICO DA GLORIA OF THE CATHEDRAL OF SANTIAGO APSES OF SAN CLEMENTE (OVIEDO)