The Histories By Herodotus Herodotus Lived from C
The Histories By Herodotus
Herodotus • Lived from C. 490 B. C. to C. 425 B. C. • Came from Halicarnassus, a city in southwestern Asia Minor
The Aegean: Greece and Asia Minor • Halicarnassus
The Histories • Our word “history” comes from the Greek historia, which originally meant “inquiry” or “investigation. ” • Herodotus was known by two titles in the ancient world – “The Father of History” (Cicero) – “The Father of Lies” (Plutarch)
The Histories • The Histories is about the rise of Persia and the Persian Wars • Herodotus saw the Persian Wars as a conflict – Between freedom and slavery – Between oriental, arbitrary despots and the free Greek communities
Major Themes (on human nature) • Retribution and vengeance as justice: those that commit evil deeds will pay for them, now or in the future • Hubris (hybris), or excessive pride or insolence, inevitably leads to some destruction (nemesis) • Human fortune is unstable • Tragic warner or wise advisor: rarely listened to until too late • Human choices have consequences
Why did Herodotus write The Histories? • So that human achievements may not become forgotten in time, • And great and marvelous deeds – some displayed by Greeks, some by barbarians – may not be without their glory, • And especially to show why the two peoples fought against each other
What do learned Persians say was the cause of the quarrel with the Greeks? • Learned Persians put the responsibility for the quarrel on the Phoenicians – They stole Io, daughter of the King of Argos – This lead to a series of tit-for-tat kidnappings • This eventually lead to Paris kidnapping Helen and the Trojan War – Which the Persians saw as the beginning of the enmity of the Greeks and Persians.
Free Greeks come into conquest and alliance • Who was the first foreigner to come into contact with the Greeks in the way of conquest and alliance? – Croesus, King of Lydia – So far as it is known – Up until then the Greeks had always been free
Candaules • Who was Candaules? – Candaules was the King of Sardis. • What led to his downfall and death? – He induced his bodyguard to look at his (Candaules’) wife naked. – His wife, discovering what was done, summoned Gyges and gave him the choice of killing Candaules or dying himself. – He chose to live, killed Candaules, and became king. Painting by William Etty, 1830
The Oracle at Delphi • When the oracle at Delphi was consulted, she confirmed Gyges’ reign, but prophesized that the Heraclids would have revenge on Gyges in what generation? – The fifth generation
The five generations of the Mermnad Dynasty • • • Gyges (38 years: 716 -678) Ardys (49 years: 678 -629) Sadyattes (12 years: 629 -617) Alyattes (57 years: 617 -560) Croesus (14 years: 560 -547)
The Aegean: Greece and Asia Minor • Halicarnassus
Alyattes and Miletus • Why did Alyattes never destroy or burn the houses of the Milesians or beseige Miletus? – The Milesians commanded the sea, so the destruction would not defeat them. – By not destroying their homes and crops, the Milesians would continue to work the land grow crops for the Lydians to plunder and burn.
Alyattes’ strategy fails • What went wrong with Alyattes’ strategy of burning the crops? – In the 12 th year of the war, the wind drove the flames onto the temple of Athene at Asseus and burned it down. • What happened to Alyattes? – Alyattes fell ill upon returning to Sardis.
The Priestess of Apollo at Delphi • What did the Priestess of Apollo at Delphi tell the messengers of Alyattes? – She would not answer any questions about his health until the Lydians had rebuilt Athene’s temple.
Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus • How did Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus, take advantage of this situation? – When Alyattes sent a messenger to Miletus to conclude a truce so the temple of Athene could be rebuilt, Thrasybulus had all the grain in the town gathered and ordered everyone in the town to start drinking and reveling. – This tricked the messenger into believing that the Milesians had plenty to eat despite the Lydians annual pillaging. – This convinced Alyattes to make peace.
The Lydian Empire after Alyattes • What happened to the Lydian empire after Alyattes was succeeded by his son Croesus? – Croesus aggressively expanded the Lydian empire by forcing all the Asiatic Greeks (Ionians and Aeolian) to pay tribute.
The Athenian Visitor • What famous Athenian visited Croesus when the Lydian empire was at the height of its wealth and power? – Solon • For what was Solon famous? – Solon created Athens’ legal code.
The happiest man? • According to Solon, why was Tellus the happiest man he had ever seen? – Tellus lived in a prosperous city (Athens). – He had fine sons and lived to see his grandchildren, all of whom survived. – He was wealthy enough by Athenian standards. – He died a glorious death in battle.
Why Solon will not judge Croesus • Why does Solon refuse to judge the happiness of Croesus? – Solon views man as entirely a creature of chance. – He believes the gods to be envious of human prosperity and therefore prone to troubling man. – Solon tells Croesus that he cannot judge Croesus’ happiness until he knows that Croesus has died a happy death. – Until then, Croesus cannot be considered happy, but only lucky, and luck is transient.
What is happiness? • How does Solon define happiness? – Whoever has the greatest number of the good things he mentioned (at least moderate prosperity, children and grandchildren, etc), keeps them to the end, and dies a peaceful death, deserves to be called happy.
Atys, favored son of Croesus • What does Croesus dream about his favored son, Atys? – Croesus has a dream that Atys will be killed by a blow from an iron weapon. • Who is Adrastus, and why does he come to the court of Croesus? – Adrastus is from the royal family of Phyrgia. He accidently killed his brother and fled to the court of Croesus. • How does Atys convince Croesus to let him hunt wild boar, despite Croesus dream about Atys’ death? – Since the boar does not have hands it could not kill him with an iron weapon.
Atys, favored son of Croesus, dies • How does Atys die? – Adrastus throws a spear at the boar misses and accidently hits Atys. • How does Adrastus respond to Atys’ death and the forgiveness of Croesus? – Considering himself to be the unluckiest of all men, he stabs himself and dies on Aty’s tomb.
Croesus prompted to take action • What caused Croesus to end his two years of mourning over Atys’ death – News that Cyrus had destroyed the empire of Astyages and that Cyrus’ Persian Empire was growing in power • What does Croseus decide to do upon receiving news of Cyrus’ rise to power? – He decides to explore the possibility of checking the expansion of Persia
The Oracles • What test did Croesus devise to test the various oracles? How is he convinced that the oracle of Delphi is a true oracle? – Croesus is convinced that Delphi is the true oracle because it passes his test. – He sent emissaries with instructions to visit the various oracles on the 100 th day after leaving Lydia and ask what Croesus was doing at that moment. – The Delphic oracle foretold correctly that Croesus was cooking tortoise and lamb in a bronze cauldron with a bronze lid. • What did Croesus instruct his messengers to ask the oracles at Delphi and Amphiaraus on their second visit? – They were told to ask whether Croesus should undertake a campaign against Persia and if he should seek an alliance with another nation.
The Oracles Answer • What answer did Croesus receive from the oracles? – Both oracles foretold that if Croesus attacked the Persians, he would destroy a great empire. – They also advised him to ally himself with the most powerful of the Greek city states. • What was Croesus’ third inquiry of the oracle of Delphi, and what was the oracle’s reply? – He inquired as to whether his reign would be long. – The oracle answered that when a mule sits on the Median throne, Croesus should run and not worry about being deemed a coward. • What did Croesus’ inquiries reveal about which of the Greek city states were most powerful? – They revealed that the Lacedaemonians (Spartans) and the Athenians were the most powerful.
Which Ally? • With whom did Croesus ally? Why? – The Lacedaemonians (Spartans) – Athens had been in a state of revolution and upheaval while the Spartan’s power was rising.
Athens • How did Pisistratus first come to power in Athens? (1. 59) – By a trick. He cut himself and his mules, then drove his cart into the market square, pretending he had escaped enemies intent on killing him. – He then convinced the Athenians to provide him an armed guard, which he used to capture the Acropolis and seize power • What kind of ruler was Pisistratus? (1. 59) – He appears to have been a good ruler who governed according to existing custom, offices, and law. He also beautified the city. • After being driven out of Athens, by what trick did Pisistratus return to power? (1. 60) – He returned to power by riding into Athens on a chariot driven by a woman disguised as Athena, convincing the people that he was so favored by the goddess that she herself was bringing him home to her Acropolis
Sparta • How did the Spartans change from being the worst governed people in Greece to being well -governed? (1. 65 -66) – The Spartans came to be well-governed when Lycurgus made fundamental changes in the laws and made sure the new laws were obeyed. – He also reorganized the army and added the new civil offices of Ephor and Elder.
Pisistratus and Lycurgus
The Spartans ask the oracle at Delphi where they might find the bones of Orestes, son of Agamemnon • The oracle replied: In Arcady lies Tegea in the level plain, Where under strong constraint two winds are blowing; Smiting is there and counter-smiting, and woe on woe; There earth, the giver of life, holds Agamemnon’s son. Bring him home, and you will prevail over Tegea. • To what do the following refer: “two winds are blowing” and “smiting is there and counter-smiting, and woe on woe”? What was the outcome of this knowledge? (1. 68) – “Two winds are blowing” refers to the two bellows of the blacksmith in Tegea – “smiting is there and counter-smiting” refers to the pounding that a blacksmith does – “woe on woe” refers to the discovery of iron having been a bad thing for mankind. This knowledge helps Lichas find the bones of Orestes.
Alliance and Warning • Why did the Lacedaemonians accept Croesus’ offer of an alliance? (1. 70) – Croesus had previously done a favor for them. – Croesus also had chosen them from among all the Greeks to be his friends. • Why did Sandanis warn Croesus against attacking the Persians? (1. 71) – Persia had no intention of attacking Lydia, but • Persians lacked comforts and riches • Lydians had luxuries (were rich) • If Persians found out about Lydian luxuries, they would want them
Cappadocia • Aside from a desire to expand his territories, what two reasons did Croesus have for attacking Cappadocia? (1. 73) – He trusted the oracle. – He desired to punish Cyrus for mistreating Astyages, King of media, his brother.
The Scythians punish Cyaxares (1. 74) • They killed a Median boy in their care and served it to him disguised as an ordinary meat dish. • The Scythians then sought refuge with king Alyattes in Sardis
Alyattes and Cyaxares (1. 74) • Alyattes protected the Scythians and went to war against Cyaxares • Cyaxares and Alyattes made peace because the day became unnaturally dark and they interpreted it to be a bad omen.
Croesus regroups after his loss • What did Croesus blame for his loss in his first battle with Cyrus and what did he decide to do next? (1. 77) – Croesus said he lost because his army was much smaller than Cyrus’. – He returned to Sardis to call upon his allies - the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Lacedaemonians - for help • What strange omen occurred in Sardis, what did it mean, and why did it do Croesus no good? (1. 78) – Snakes swarmed into Sardis, only to be eaten by horses. – The omen was interpreted to mean a foreign army (horses, not native to Sardis) would subdue the Sardis (the snakes). – Croesus had already lost and was captured by the time the messengers returned with the meaning of the omen.
Cyrus’ Plan to defeat Croesus • What course of action did Cyrus take upon learning that Croesus had headed back to Sardis? (1. 79) – Predicting correctly that Croesus would disband his army as soon as he arrived home, Cyrus proceeded immediately to Sardis before the Lydians had a chance to raise a new army. • Respecting the Lydian cavalry, what strategy did Cyrus adopt to counteract it? Was this strategy successful? (1. 80) – On the advice of Harpagus, a Mede, Cyrus put his camels at the front of his army. – Horses fear camels (dislike sight and smell) – It worked. The horses of the Lydian cavalry fled upon sight of the camels.
Spartan Aid • What famous battle were the Argives and Spartans engaged in at this time? (1. 82) – Battle of the 300. • Why did the Spartans fail to come to the aid of Croesus? (1. 83) – 1 st they were engaged in their own battle with the Argives – Then, when they were completing their preparations and were ready to sail, a messenger arrived with news that Sardis had fallen.
Cyrus Conquers Sardis (1. 84) • How was Cyrus finally able to conquer Sardis? – Ingenuity of Hyroeades the Mardian – He noticed a Lydian soldier climb down a steep slope thought to be unassailable to fetch a helmet. – Cyrus used this path to surprise and take Sardis.
The Priestess at Delphi once told Croesus Lydian lord of many nations, foolish Croesus Wish not to hear the longed-for voice within your palace That is, your son’s voice: better for you were it otherwise; For his first word will he speak on a day of sorrow. • What is the significance of this? (1. 85) – Croesus had a fine young son who was mute. – While the Persians were sacking Sardis, a soldier was about to kill Croesus. – Croesus mute son cried out “Do not kill Croesus, fellow!” – He was able to speak for the rest of his life.
Croesus begins to understand • How were the oracles foretelling that if Croesus attacked Persia he would destroy a great empire fulfilled? (1. 86) – Croesus did destroy a great empire, unfortunately, it was his empire. • As he awaits death on the pyre, what does Croesus cry out? Why? (1. 86) – “Solon” – He recalled that Solon had declared that no man could be called happy until he was dead. • Why does Cyrus decide to spare Croesus’ life? How was Croesus’ goodness proved to Cyrus? (1. 86 -87) – He was touched by Croesus’ story about Solon – Croesus’ goodness was proved by rain dousing the flames of the pyre after Croesus called out to Apollo to save him.
Croesus the Advisor • When asked by Cyrus why he attacked the Persians, whom does Croesus blame? (1. 87) – Apollo – “No one is fool enough to choose war instead of peace – in peace sons bury fathers, but in war fathers bury sons. ” – He concludes (wrongly? ) it must have been fate. • Upon seeing Persian soldiers plundering Sardis, what wise advice did Croesus give Cyrus? (1. 88 -89) – He advises Cyrus that it not his treasure that is being looted, but Cyrus’, as Cyrus is the new ruler of Sardis – He suggests that Cyrus collect 10% of the loot as a tribute to Zeus.
The Meaning of the Oracles (1) • When Croesus sent his chains to Delphi to reproach Apollo for misleading him, what reply did the Priestess make? What was Croesus’ reaction? (1. 91) – Even the gods could not escape destiny. – Apollo had postponed the capture of Sardis three years and saved Croesus on the pyre – Croesus should have made a follow-up inquiry as to which empire would fall – He failed to understand the reference to the mule. – Croesus admitted that Apollo was innocent and that he had only himself to blame.
The Meaning of the Oracles (2) • When Croesus inquired as to whether his reign would be long, the oracle of Delphi had answered that when a mule sat on the Median throne, …. How was this borne out? (1. 91) – The mule was Cyrus – Just as a mule is the offspring of a noble female horse and a base male donkey, so Cyrus was the child of parents of different races. – His mother was the noble daughter of King Astyges of Media while his father was a Persian, subject to the Medes
Cyrus’ Median Ancestors • Herodotus bases his account of the story of Cyrus on those Persian sources that appear to tell the simple truth without exaggeration. (1. 95) • Deioces and justice (1. 96) – Deioces said injustice is the enemy of justice. – He set out to build a reputation for just dealings, as their was an absence of organized government in Media at this time
Deioces • How did Deioces become king? (1. 96 -98) – He became the only person others could trust to settle disputes. – One day, he announced he was finished solving others’ disputes while letting his own affairs lapse. – Lawlessness increased. – The people decided they needed a monarchy and Deioces was appointed as monarch. • What was the purpose of Deioces’ decree that all communication with the king was to be done through messengers? (1. 99) – He was concerned that, if his former peers saw him frequently, it would lead to jealousy, resentment and plotting. If nobody saw him though, he would come to be regarded as above the rest.
Phraortes and Cyaxares • What country was the first conquered by Phraortes, son of Deioces? (1. 102) – Persia • What great military innovation did Cyaxares, son of Phraortes, introduce? (1. 103) – He was the first to divide his armies into distinct units – spearmen, archers, and cavalry. • What upset the military ambitions of Cyaxares? How long did the situation last? (1. 104 -106) – The invasion of the Scythians upset Cyaxares’ seige of Nineveh. They dominated the area for 28 years. • How did Cyaxares and the Medes regain power? (1. 106) – Cyaxares and the Medes invited the Scythians to a banquet, got them drunk and murdered them.
Astyages fears Cyrus • What was the interpretation of the second dream that Astyages had about his daughter Mandane that so alarmed him? (1. 108) – Astyages’ second dream about Mandane was interpreted to mean that her son (Cyrus) would usurp (overthrow) Astyages’ throne. • How did Astyages attempt to protect himself from this dream coming true? (1. 108) – When Cyrus was born, Astyages commanded his kinsman and steward, Harpagus, to take Cyrus and kill him. Astyages also warned Harpagus that if he failed him, Harpagus would be caught in his own trap.
Baby Cyrus Survives • What reasons did Harpagus give to his wife for refusing to kill Cyrus himself? What did he do instead? (1. 109 -110) – He said he would not take a hand in so brutal a murder because Cyrus was related to him by blood and because Astyages was old and had no son. If Astyages died and Mandane succeeded him to the throne, Harpagus’ own life would be in peril. – Instead, he sent for Mitradates, a herdsman of Astyages, and commanded him in the king’s name to leave Cyrus to die in the wildest spot in the hills • How did Cyrus survive? (1. 111 -112) – Cyrus survived because Mitradates’ wife gave birth to a stillborn son the very day that Mitradates arrived with Cyrus. – She begged Mitradates not to kill Cyrus, but rather to expose the body of their dead son and raise Cyrus as their own.
Cyrus’ identity is revealed • How was Cyrus’ identity revealed when he was 10 years old? (1. 114 -116) – Cyrus and some boys were playing “King” and Cyrus was elected king by the other boys. He beat one of the boys severely for insubordination. – The boy, a son of a noble, told his father who in turn insisted that Cyrus be punished. – Upon questioning Cyrus, Astyages guessed his true identity and questioned Harpagus and the herdsman to confirm the truth of his suspicion.
Astyages responds to the news • Why did Astyages invite Harpagus to dinner when Cyrus’ identity is revealed and the whole story of his survival exposed? (1. 118 -120) – Astyages invited Harpagus to dinner under the pretext of celebrating Cyrus’ survival and return. – However, the dinner was really a ruse for punishing Harpagus. At the dinner, Astyages had Harpagus’ son slaughtered and fed to his unsuspecting father. • Where did Astyages send Cyrus? Did he expect any further difficulty from Cyrus? Why or why not? (1. 120 -121) – Astyages sent Cyrus to Persia to live with his biological parents. – He did not expect any further trouble from Cyrus because the magi he consulted told him that the boy had become king in his game so the prophecy had been fulfilled.
Cyrus becomes King • Why did Cyrus attack Astyages? (1. 123 -124) – Harpagus provoked Cyrus to attack Astyages (revenge) by revealing the truth of his prior plot to kill Cyrus at his birth. • Persian customs: 1. 130, 1. 135 -38 • Why did Cyrus refuse to make an alliance with the Greeks? (1. 141) – Cyrus refused to make an alliance with the Greeks after he conquered Croesus because they had refused an alliance with him against Croesus earlier when he was weaker and needed them.
Death of Cyrus • Did Cyrus consider the warning of the Lacedaemonians (Spartans) a serious threat? (1. 152) – No, he did not consider their threat a serious one. He did not believe they had the strength, unity or numbers to repulse his troops if he decided to attack them. • Why did Croesus advise Cyrus to take away the rights of his own people, the Lydians, to bear arms and to weaken them with a softer life style? (1. 155 -156) – Croesus gave this advice believing he would save the Lydians from slavery by keeping them from rebelling. • Book 1. 205 -1. 214 • How did Cyrus die? (1. 214) – Cyrus died in battle against the Massagetae under queen Tomyris.
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