The Gunpowder Empires Ottoman Safavid Mughal Ottoman Origins

The Gunpowder Empires: Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal

Ottoman Origins • One of many Muslim warrior groups on East frontier of Byzantine Empire • Conquered much of western Anatolia & Balkan Peninsula • Most long lived of post-Mongol empires

Ottoman: Turning Point • 1453, broke through massive walls & captured Constantinople • Renamed Istanbul • Gave Turks control of city that symbolized Christian teachings & connection to ancient Rome • Strategic location for long-distance trade & military deployments

Ottomans: 1516 -1517 • Selim took title of caliph, defender of faith • extended from Black Sea to Red Sea to Strait of Gibraltar • little impact on N. Africa • Pashas, appointed government officials, collected taxes and maintained law & order reported to sultan in Constantinople

Ottoman Expansion • Soldiers and sailors continued to push borders outward • Sultans established administrative rule that compared favorably with regimes elsewhere • Distinctive use of different type of slavery • Based on religion, not skin color • Called Devshirme

Ottoman: Suleiman I • 1520 • expanded Ottoman rule into Europe and West Med. Sea • ruled for 46 years • great military commander, known for legislation as well • codified Ottoman law-kept Islamic faith • Tolerance for Christians of the Empire • addressed taxes • built more schools

Ottomans • Suleiman married harem girl from Poland named Roxelana-had 5 children with her • executed his eldest son, Mustafa, because Roxelana said he was planning to kill Suleiman and take power – her son Selim took power when Suleiman died in 1566

Ottomans • success largely based on mastery of firearm technology • Sultans head of empire • supreme political & military authority • Power always transferred to single authority • position of sultan was hereditary – son always succeeded father

Ottomans • Since time of Mehmet II, sultans ruled from the Topkaki Palace in Istanbul • administrative headquarters & chief residence of sultan • private domain of sultan called “harem, ” or “sacred place” • Sultans often chose 4 wives as favorites • When son became sultan, his mother became queen mother - acted as a major adviser to throne

Ottoman Centralized Power • Chief advisor was “Grand Vizier” • Led meetings of imperial council - met 4 days a week • Sultan sat behind screenmade wishes known to GV • Empire divided into districts-ruled by officials who were helped by bureaucrats trained at palace schools • Senior officials given land - collected taxes & supplied armies

Ottomans • Sunni • Sultans claimed title of caliph • responsible for guiding & keeping Islamic law • In practice, they gave their religious duties to the “ulema” - a group of religious advisors • Ulema were responsible for legal system & schools for educating Muslims

Ottomans • Tolerant of non-Muslims • Non-Muslims paid tax, but allowed to practice their religion & could convert to Islam • Most people in European areas remained Christian • In some areas, large numbers converted to Islam

Ottomans & Portuguese Threat • In early 16 th century, merchants form south India & Sumatra requested help from Ottomans • Ottomans responded vigorously to threat close to their territory • did not see growing threat of world wide naval powers like Portuguese • Never formulated a consistent aggressive policy in Indian Ocean to counter growing European dominance • Trapped in land based paradigm when world was shifting to naval power

Ottoman: Devshrime (Child Levy) • Christian boys taken by force from families • Placed w/Turks • Converted to Islam • Trained for service in one of four royal institutions – Palace – Scribes – Religious – Military

Ottoman Institutions: Janissary Corps • By 1520’s, military balanced between cavalry archers and Janissaries-Christian prisoners forced to serve as military slaves • Standing army-lived in barracks and trained all year • Willing to fight on foot with guns

Ottoman Military • Muslim states relied on slave soldiers for long time • Conquest of Christian lands provided new military source • Converted to Islam • Provided flexibility-willing to fight on foot with guns • Ottoman were horse culture-guns too heavy and awkward on horseback

Ottoman Navy • Manned by Greek, Turkish, Algerian, Tunisian sailors with N. African admirals • Turning Point: Lost battle of Lepanto against Venice, Spain, Papal States in 1571 -dispelled idea of Ottoman invincibility • Despite loss, their resources were so extensive that within a year, replaced all galleys that were sunk

Ottoman Society: • Cosmopolitan, sophisticated • Shari’a Law • Sultan – provided justice The Askeri – Professionals/Military Elites provided security • • The Raya Professionals Merchants-exempt from taxes Tradesmen Guild Members Peasants Non-Muslims-local customs and religious leaders provided structure and guidance

Ottoman: Crisis and Revolt 1585 -1650 Cannon & lighter-weight firearms gained importance Size/cost of Janissary grew Role of traditional cavalry diminished Sultan reduced number of landholding cavalrymen Revenue that used to go to their expenses, went into imperial treasury • Inflation from cheap silver from New World bankrupted many landholders who were restricted to fixed amount of taxes • Land returned to the state • Displaced cavalrymen, armed and unhappy, became a restive element • • •

Ottoman Crisis and Revolt • Revolts between 1590 -1610 • Marauders/Bandits • Former landholding cavalrymen, short-term soldiers • Overburdened peasants • Impoverished students • Anatolia suffered the worst • Government inability to stop spread of guns

Ottoman Janissary Privilege • Janissaries forced changes that helped the state in short run: • Could support themselves • Hereditary • Forced recruitment abolished • Total number of Janissaries increased, effectiveness as military force decreased

Ottoman Economic Changes: Tax Farming • Sultans became more isolated • Grand Viziers had real power • Tax farmers paid specific taxes in advance in return for collecting a greater amount from taxpayers • Rural administration disrupted • Tax farmers less likely to live on land • State had greater administrative burden to maintain order • Relied on provincial governors & on wealthy who purchased lifelong tax collection rights

Ottoman Growing Weakness • Demographic changes, Ottoman inability to control trade, growing dominance of European traders in Indian Ocean turned Izmir into multicultural entrepot • Agricultural economy of lands most accessible to Europe became enmeshed in growing European commercial networks • Ottoman security weakened

Ottoman Weakness • • • Military power decline Janissaries sometime hired replacements Sultans relied on poorly trained seasonal recruits 2 nd Seige of Vienna failed in 1683 Weakness obvious to Austrians and Russians Safavid empire collapsed in 1722

Ottoman Weakness • began w/ Selim II about 1699 • training of officials declined • senior positions given to sons/daughters of elite, based less on merit • elite only interested in own fortunes, so local government grew more corrupt and taxes rose • Wars depleted imperial treasury

Ottoman Weakness • Declining trade w/East as Safavid instability cut into Silk production • Taxes on coffee were higher to Muslim merchants 15% vs 3% • Europe dominated sea trade but did not gain control of Ottoman territory

Ottoman Weakness: The Tulip Period • Very few able to perceive downward spiral of Ottoman power & reasons for it • Ironically, elites became fascinated with European styles & attitudes • “Tulip Bulb” craze= growing detachment/ disengagement from real issues

Weakness: Patrona Halil Rebellion • 1730, a revolt by Janissary with religious overtones forced the abdication of Sultan Ahmed II • Halil took control but was executed • Confirmed that central government weak • Local powers gained power

Safavid Empire: 1501 -1722

Safavid Origins • Safavid Dynasty started w/ Shah Ismail • descendant of Safi al-Din-leader of Turkish ethnic groups in Azerbaijan near Caspian Sea • Under Ismail, Safavid took control of much of Iran & Iraq • Relied on cavalry paid through land grants • Multi-lingual • Oriented inward-not towards the sea

Safavids • Ismail called himself “shah, ” or king, of new Persian state • Ismail was Shiite • Theocracy • Created distinct Shi’ite identity • sent preachers to different areas to convert members of Ottoman Empire • led to massacre of Sunni Muslims when he took Baghdad • Ismail lost at Tabriz to Suleiman over religious differences

Safavid: Shah Abbas, 1588 -1629 • Restless, decisive, ruthless, intelligent, disciplined • brought Safavids to highest point of glory • Standardized Shiite beliefsbrought into line with Shari’a law • usurped throne from father & imprisoned him • later killed man who helped him gain throne • With European allies, attacked Ottoman Turks to regain lost lands

Safavid: Shah Abbas I • Enlarged Iranian territory • Stabilizing force after period of civil war and foreign invasions • Established global trade contacts between Asia and Europe • Built Isfahan • Donated generously • Employed calligraphers, painters, bookbinders, designers for inscriptions on buildings • Created a visual style that would be associated with his reign • Laid foundation for Modern Iran

Safavid Empire: Shah Abbas I • When he took power, Ottomans occupied West Iran, the Caucasus, and Iraq • Uzbeks controlled Khurasanincluding holy shrine of Imam Riza at Mashad • Regained territory with slave army of ghulams, Christian slaves who had converted • Seized Hormuz from Portuguese • Defeated Ottomans, regained Baghdad-allowed access to holy Shi’ite sites • Controlled trade in Persian Gulf

Safavids: Shad Abbas and Sufism • Mystical strain of Islam found in both Sunni and Shi’a sects • Also known as dervishes • Achieve oneness w/ god though prayer, rituals, visions- retreat from material world • Shah Abbas was Sufi & tolerant but would repress unorthodox Sufi beliefs or practices or if his authority was threatened

Safavids • Safavid Empire went from Azerbaijan on Caspian Sea east to India; along the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea north to the southern border of Russia • When Shah Abbas died, religious orthodoxy increased • Women forced to give up freedom for life of seclusionwearing veil • Not cut off from outside world • Wife retained property after marriage-gave some women a stake in general economy and a degree of independence • Under Shari’a women could testify for themselves

Safavid Religion • • • Shi’ite Beliefs united Safavid Created further estrangement from neighbors-all Sunni Persian language 2 nd after Arabic Developed unique cultural elements in tile mosaics, poetry Shi’ite doctrine says that all temporal leaders are stand-ins for the “Hidden Imam”; the 12 th descendent of Ali Debate over the relationship between religion & politics led to religious scholars independent from imperial authority-did not become subordinate government functionaries like in Ottoman Empire

Safavid: Isfahan • Isfahan-jewel of Safavid Empire • Silk & carpet weaving flourished • Riza-i-Abbasi most famous artist of the time • beautiful works about simple subjects such as oxen plowing, hunters, and lovers • soft colors and flowing movement in painting

Safavid: Economy • Silks and carpets were important commercial goods • Good location on trade routes • Became rich from growing trade between Europe and Central Asia and India • Both Muslim and Non. Muslim traders • Most subjects were farmers/herders

Safavid: Economic Crisis and Political Collapse • Most subjects were subsistence farmers • no significant technological developments • Could not generate enough money for military and bureaucracy • Inflation from cheap silver from New World • Mismanagement of silk industry • Nomadic groups withdrew support • Afghan marauders captured Isfahan and ended Safavid rule •

Mughal Empire: 1605 -1707 • Babur founderunited Hindu & Muslim kingdoms • descendant of Mongol Conqueror Timur Lenk • Took Khyber Pass in NW India & Delhi in N. India • Small armies but had weapons, artillery, & used them w/ great effect

Mughal • Akbar the Great was grandson of Babur • placed most of India under Mughal control by use of artillery and negotiation • Formed alliances with Hindu Rajput Kingdoms • best known for his tolerance • adopted a policy of religious tolerance – married Hindu princess • Zamindars were low ranking officials of Hindu descent who got paid by keeping part of collected taxes • part of his toleration of government administration

Mughal • Shah Jahan ruled 1628 -1658 • used political system started by earlier Mughal rulers • expanded boundaries into Deccan Plateau and Samarkand in Hindu Kush • Money spent on buildings and military projects drained the treasury-had to raise taxes • best known for Taj Mahal – mausoleum for favorite wife, Mumatz Mahal

Mughal • Aurangzeb took over from his father, Shah Jahan – had his brother put to death • devout Muslim- high principles • Imposed Shari’a Law • tried to eliminate social evils – suttee • (Hindu practice of cremating a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre) – levying illegal taxes, gambling, drinking • Ended policy of religious tolerance – tried to convert Hindus, tore down temples • Imposed heavy tax on Hindus • Conquered Hindu kingdoms in central India, took slaves • led to social unrest that made India open to attack from abroad

Mughal • British helped decline of Mughal Empire • Sir Robert Clive-chief representative of British East India Company • 1696, British East India gained control of Indian trade by taking Bengal, Calcutta • Indians practiced guerilla warfare against British but couldn’t dislodge them

Women’s Lives Under Mughal • Complex • played a role in Mughal tribal society – warriors & advisors in political matters • Could own land & do business • Experienced restrictions under Islamic law • isolation of women was practiced in upper class Hindu families • Many Hindu practices went unchanged by Mughal rule

Mughal Art & Architecture • brought together Persian and Indian influences in art & architecture • Taj Mahal- greatest example of Mogul architecture • Akbar encouraged Persian & Indian motifs • “Akbar style” included humans in action • He encouraged artists to imitate European art forms, including perspective & lifelike portraits • He commissioned artists from Persia & Europe to teach Indian artists

Mughal • Urdu= Arabic + Hindi • Education considered pupils needs and culture

Maritime Worlds of Islam, 1500 -1750 • • • Some SE Asian kingdoms welcome Islam to counter aggressive Christianity of Europeans Muslims in coastal Africa intermarried with locals Created mixed population that played a key part in development of distinctive Swahili culture

Conclusion • All three Empires declined simultaneously • Land-based empires dependent on land grants could not provide money needed for expensive weapons • Sea-based empires flourished from new ship designs, navigational accuracy, cannon, jointstock companies, and aggressive trading tactics • Balance of power shiftedfavored Europeans