The Great East Japan Earthquake Tsunami and Nuclear

The Great East Japan Earthquake, Tsunami and Nuclear Meltdown An Assessment One Year On Dr. Peter Matanle Lecturer in Japanese Studies, National Institute of Japanese Studies and School of East Asian Studies, University of Sheffield. E-mail: p. matanle@sheffield. ac. uk The Japan Society of the UK Lecture Geographical Association Annual Conference University of Manchester 14 April 2012 Japan Quake Map

The Great East Japan Earthquake, Tsunami and Nuclear Meltdown An Assessment One Year On • Introduction • Japan and Tōhoku Prior to 11 March 2011 • What Happened on 11 March 2011? • After the Disaster • Can Japan Recover? • Conclusion: Transformation or Status Quo?

Japan and Tōhoku Prior to 11 March 2012 Ageing, Low-fertility and Depopulation 2000 -2010 - Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima Prefectures shrank by 3. 5 percent, from 5. 908 to 5. 708 million people. Prior to 11 March 2011, the Japanese government had forecast shrinkage of a further 791, 000 to 4. 917 million (13. 9%) by 2030; making a total decline of 16. 8%. A total fall of 20 per cent (1. 181 million) (2010 -30) now seems plausible. • Japan’s Net Reproduction Rate fell below 1. 0 for the first time around 1955/60. • The Total Fertility Rate fell below 2. 1 in 1974. • Japan began to shrink in around 2005/10. United Nations Population Division (2010) World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision, UNPD Website.

Japan and Tōhoku Prior to 11 March 2012 Ageing, Low-fertility and Depopulation 0 -14 120% 100% 80% 60% 5. 7 7. 1 9. 1 15 -64 12. 0 17. 3 65+ 128 23. 1 Total Population 29. 1 31. 6 36. 1 140 38. 8 94 64. 1 39. 9 87 100 80 68. 9 67. 3 69. 5 67. 9 40% 63. 7 60 59. 2 58. 1 53. 9 51. 5 50. 9 20% 0% 120 40 20 30. 2 24. 0 23. 5 18. 2 14. 6 13. 2 11. 7 10. 3 10. 0 9. 7 9. 1 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 0 Actual (1960 -2010) and Projected (2020+) Population of Japan by Age Group (left hand scale, %), and Total Population (right hand scale, millions). Source: Statistics Bureau, 2011; NIPSSR, 2003.

Iwate Prefecture Miyagi Prefecture Sendai City Fukushima Prefecture Population change in Japan by prefecture and prefectural capital, 1990– 2010. Source: Statistics Bureau (2011).

Kamaishi City Minamisanriku Town Rikuzentakata City Ishinomaki City Projected population of Japan by prefecture and prefectural capital. 2010 -30. Source: NIPSSR (2003).

What happened on 11 March 2011? A Compound Event Earthquake Time: Location: Distance: Aftershocks: Tsunami Time: Height: Max. Run-up: 21). Area Flooded: 14: 46 a M 9. 0 reverse megathrust earthquake. NW Pacific Ocean (38. 297°N, 142. 372°E). Subduction zone between Pacific-N. American Plates. 129 km (80 miles) E of Sendai. 373 km (231 miles) NE of Tokyo. 702 of M 5. 0 or greater. Approx. 15: 00 -15: 45 in Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima Prefectures. 5 -20 metres in Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima. 38. 9 m (127. 6 ft). Miyako, Iwate Prefecture (Shogakukan Creative et al, 2011: 507 km 2. Casualties and Damage (11 April 2012 – National Police Agency Website) Dead: 15, 856 Missing: 3, 070 Injured: 6, 027 129, 404 buildings totally destroyed, 255, 737 buildings partially destroyed. 26. 7 million tons of debris (Asahi Shimbunsha, 2011). Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Cooling systems flooded and failed. Hydrogen explosions at Units 1, 3, and 4. Units 1, 2, and 3 experienced full meltdown.

What happened on 11 March 2011? Rikuzentakata, Iwate Prefecture and Ishinomaki, Miyagi Prefecture Rikuzentakata City (1 March 2012) Population (2005/10): 24, 709 and 23, 302 (-5. 7%) (National Census data). Confirmed dead: 1, 691 (41 missing) (Post-disaster population est. = 21, 570) Estimated pop. 2015: 20, 242 (Est. Pop. Change 2005 -15 = -18. 1%)* Buildings destroyed: 3, 368 (3, 159 [totally], 97 [mostly], 85 [half-destroyed], 27 [partially]) Ishinomaki City (11 March 2012) Population (2005/10): 167, 324 and 160, 826 (-3. 9%) Confirmed dead: 3, 280 (539 missing) (Post-disaster population est. = 157, 007) Estimated pop. 2015: 150, 735 (Est. Pop. Change 2005 -15 = -6. 0%)* Okawa Elementary School: 74/108 children died; 10/14 teachers. *2015 population estimates do not include projections for out-migration.

Rikuzentakata, August 2011: Apartment blocks facing the ocean. (Photo: Peter Matanle).

Rikuzentakata, August 2011. Debris clearance is progressing. But the town has been destroyed. (Photo: Peter Matanle). Tsunami footage at Rikuzentakata.

Rikuzentakata, August 2011. Municipal gymnasium and emergency shelter. (Photo: Peter Matanle).

Rikuzentakata, August 2011. Junior High School (ages 12 -15). (Photo: Peter Matanle).

Rikuzentakata, August 2011. Temporary housing for tsunami refugees. (Photo: Peter Matanle).

Ishinomaki, August 2011. Senior High School (Ages 15 -18). (Photo: Peter Matanle).

Ishinomaki, August 2011. Debris mountain. (Photo: Peter Matanle).

Ishinomaki, August 2011. (Photo: Peter Matanle). がんばろう！石巻 (Tough it out! Ishinomaki). 復興するぞ！(We will rebuild!)

Minamisanriku town, Miyagi Prefecture before the tsunami (2001). Source: Sankei Shimbunsha (2011: 31); see also Sankei. Photo (2011). Reproduced by kind permission of Sankei Books.

Minamisanriku town, Miyagi Prefecture after the tsunami (27 March 2011). Source: Sankei Shimbunsha (2011: 31); see also Sankei. Photo (2011). Reproduced by kind permission of Sankei Books.

The Unosumai district of Kamaishi City, Iwate Prefecture before the tsunami (2007). Source: Sankei Shimbunsha (2011, p. 31); see also Sankei. Photo (2011). Reproduced by kind permission of Sankei Books.

The Unosumai district of Kamaishi City, Iwate Prefecture after the tsunami (29 March 2011). Source: Sankei Shimbunsha (2011, p. 31); see also Sankei. Photo (2011). Reproduced by kind permission of Sankei Books.

What happened on 11 March 2011? Exposing Problems of Governance The disaster exposes difficult issues in 21 st century Japanese society • A society of gaps (kakusa shakai): 65. 2% of dead were aged 60+; 92. 5% of deaths by drowning (Japan Times, 2011). • Post-traumatic psychological and emotional impacts. Relocation damage tsunami and radiation affected areas: Anxiety, depression, hypertension. • Government/bureaucracy/industry relations: ‘The Iron Triangle’ and the role of electricity providers: Regulatory capture; exploitation of vulnerable rural locales. • Problems of nuclear management: and Erosion of public trust in government and expert systems; design, siting, construction, management all flawed; belief in fail-safe systems. Can Japan overcome these problems?

Japan’s Nuclear Power Stations in March 2012 (JAIF Website) Takahama (Kansai EPCO) Takahama Town, Fukui Pref. 11, 064 (11, 630) 4 X PWR (2 X 826 MW; 2 X 870 MW) None operating. Tomari (Hokkaido EPCO) Tomari Village, Hokkaido, Pop: 1, 882 (2, 185) 3 X PWR: 2 X 579 MW; 1 X 912 MW MOX. 1 XPWR operating. Ōi (Kansai EPCO) Ōi Town, Fukui Pref. Pop. : 8, 582 (9, 217) 4 X PWR (2 X 1175 MW; 2 X 1180 MW) None operating. Mihama (Kansai EPCO) Mihama Town, Fukui Pref. Pop. : 8, 077 (8, 462) 3 X PWR (340 MW, 500 MW, 826 MW) None operating. Tsuruga (Japan Atomic Power Company) Tsuruga City, Fukui Pref. 67, 765 (68, 402) 1 X BWR (357 MW); 1 X PWR (1160 MW) None operating. (2 X ABWR; Under construction – 2016/17; 2 X 1538 MW) Monju (Japan Atomic Energy Agency) Tsuruga City, Fukui Pref. 67, 765 (68, 402) 1 X Fast Breeder Reactor (280 MW) Restarted in 2010 after accident shutdown in 1995. Fugen (Japan Atomic Energy Agency) Tsuruga City, Fukui Pref. 67, 765 (68, 402) 1 X Advanced Thermal Reactor (165 MW) Shut down and awaiting decommissioning. Higashidōri (Tōhoku EPCO/Tokyo EPCO) Higashidōri Village, Aomori Pref. Pop. : 7, 253 (8, 042) 1 X BWR: 110 MW (Tōhoku EPCO) Emergency shutdown, 11 March 2011. Not restarted. (1 X ABWR Planned - 2021; 138. 5 MW)(Tōhoku EPCO), (2 X ABWR Planned – 2017/19, 2 X 1, 385 MW)(Tokyo EPCO) Onagawa (Tōhoku EPCO) Onagawa Town, Miyagi Pref. Pop. : 10, 051 (10, 723) 3 X BWR (1 X 524 MW; 2 X 825 MW) None operating, Emergency shutdown, 11 March 2011. Kashiwazaki-Kariwa (Tokyo EPCO) Kashiwazaki City and Kariwa Village, Niigata Pref. Pops. 91, 463/4, 802 (94, 648/4, 806) 5 X BWR (5 X 1100 MW) 2 X ABWR (1356 MW) 1 XABWR Operating. Shika (Hokuriku EPCO) Shika Town, Ishikawa Pref. Pop. : 22, 228 (23, 790) 1 X BWR (540 MW) 1 X ABWR (1206 MW) None operating. Namie-Odaka (Tōhoku EPCO) Minamisoma City / Namie Town, Fukushima Pref. Pops. 70, 895/20, 908 (72, 837/21, 615) (1 X ABWR Planned – 2021; 825 MW) M 7. 4, 11/03/2011 Pacific Plate M 6. 6 16/07/2007 M 7. 1, 07/04/2011 M 6. 9 23/10/2004 Shimane (Chugoku EPCO) Matsue City, Shimane Pref. Pop. : 193, 331 (196, 603) 2 X PWR (1 X 460 MW; 1 X 820 MW) (1 X PWR Planned – 2011; 1373 MW) None operating. Genkai (Kyūshū EPCO) Genkai Town, Saga Pref. Pop. : 6, 379 (6, 738) 4 X PWR (2 X 559; 2 X 1180 MW) None operating. North American Plate Eurasian Plate M 7. 2, 09/03/2011 M 9. 0, 11/03/2011 M 7. 0 11/04/2011 M 7. 7 11/03/2011 M 7. 2, 13/01/1995 M 7. 9, 01/09/1923 M 8+, Expected Kaminoseki (Chugoku EPCO) Kaminoseki Town, Yamaguchi Pref. Pop. : 3, 332 (3, 706) (2 X ABWR Planned – 2 X 1373 MW) Hamaoka (Chubu EPCO) Omaezaki City, Shizuoka Pref. Pop. : 34, 700 (35, 272) Ikata (Shikoku EPCO) 4 X BWR Ikata Town, Ehime Pref. (1 X 540 MW; 1 X 840 MW; 1 X 1100 MW; 1 X 1137 MW) Pop. : 10, 880 (12, 095) 1 X ABWR (1267 MW) 3 X PWR (2 X 566 MW; 1 X 890 MW) All shut down. Prime Minister’s request, May 2011. None operating. (1 X ABWR Planned – 2020; 1400 MW). Philippine Plate Sendai (Kyūshū EPCO) Satsumasendai Town, Kagoshima Pref. Pop. : 99, 558 (102, 370) 2 X PWR (2 X 890 MW) None operating. (Planned 1 X APWR - 2019, 1590 MW) Ōma (J-Power) Ōma Town, Aomori Pref. Pop. : 6, 340 (6, 212) (1 X ABWR Planned - 2014; 1, 383 MW MOX) M 7. 5, 11/03/2011 Fukushima Daiichi (Tokyo EPCO) Okuma and Futaba Towns Pops. 11, 511/6, 932 (10, 992/7, 170) 6 X BWR (1 X 460 MW; 4 X 784 MW 1 X MOX; 1 X 1100 MW) None operating. All disabled, 11 March 2011. All to be decommissioned. (2 X ABWR Planned – 2016/17; 1380 MW. Cancelled: April 2011) Fukushima Daini (Tokyo EPCO) Naraha and Tomioka Towns, Fukushima Pref. Pops. 7, 701/15, 996 (8, 188/15, 910) 4 X BWR (4 X 1100 MW) None operating. Emergency shutdown, 11 March 2011. Tōkai and Tōkai Daini (Japan Atomic Power Co. ) Tōkai Village, Ibaraki Pref. Pop. : 37, 430 (35, 450) Tōkai: Magnox (159 MW), Decommissioned. Tōkai Daini: BWR (1060 MW). Not operating, emergency shutdown, 11 March 2011. Jōyō (Japan Atomic Energy Agency) Ōarai Town, Ibaraki Pref. Pop. : 18, 331 (19, 205) Experimental FBR X 1 (140 MW) Current Status unknown. Not commercially operating.

After the Disaster: The Months following 11 March 2011 The Government’s Immediate Response 11 April 2011 PM Naoto Kan established three principles for recovery. (1) to create a regional society that is highly resistant to natural disasters [SAFE], (2) to establish a social system that allows people to live in harmony with the global Environment [SUSTAINABLE], and (3) to build a compassionate society that cares about people, in particular, the Vulnerable [COMPASSIONATE]. • Government efforts to restore systems mired in political in-fighting over management of the Fukushima crisis, then intentions and status of PM Kan, and now over how to pay for recovery. • Reconstruction Agency took 11 months to establish (Kobe took 4 months, and that was criticised as a slow response).

After the Disaster: One Year On Government Reconstruction Response 24 June Basic Act on Reconstruction in response to the Great East Japan Earthquake 25 June 2011 Reconstruction Design Council produced its report: Towards Reconstruction: Hope beyond the Disaster 10 February 2012 Reconstruction Agency inaugurated. Basic Principles of Report Recommendations 1. Focus on Local Communities and human linkages (絆 - kizuna). 2. Accept that disasters occur, and base survival on ‘self-aid’. 3. Develop conditions for mutual aid and public aid. Basic Principles of Reconstruction 1. Reconstruct under concept of ‘Disaster Reduction’. There are some disasters so huge as to be impossible to defend against. Self-help essential, but mutual and public help important too. 2. Reconstruction plans must incorporate a future vision for the region which takes account of structural changes in society and economy (principally ageing and depopulation).

After the Disaster: One Year On Main points from: Towards Reconstruction: Hope beyond the Disaster 1. Relocate onto higher ground – Compact Cities. [SAFE/SUSTAINABLE] 2. Integrated land use regulations for building on low-lying land. [SAFE] 3. Huge-scale coastal levees to protect coastal plains where community relocation to higher ground impossible. [SAFE] 4. Municipality led consultation with citizen groups. [SUSTAINABLE] 5. New government led disaster response structure. [SAFE] 6. Restore community life and livelihood. [SUSTAINABLE/COMPASSIONATE] 7. Provide comprehensive community care facilities. [COMPASSIONATE] 8. Ensure education and restore culture. [SUSTAINABLE/COMPASSIONATE] 9. From emergency employment to employment restoration. [SUSTAINABLE] 10. Recovery of agriculture, forestry and fisheries. [SUSTAINABLE] 11. Strengthening of infrastructure. [SAFE] 12. Improved energy efficiency and promotion of renewable energy. [SUSTAINABLE] 13. Utilisation of ICT involving local citizens. [SAFE/SUSTAINABLE/COMPASSIONATE] 14. Creation of special zones and use of municipal independence. [SUSTAINABLE] 15. Open Reconstruction; promotion of a New Public Commons. [COMPASSIONATE]

After the Disaster: One Year On Obstacles to Recovery 1. Securing financial stability and providing funds. 2. Removal and disposal of irradiated debris … 3. To make way for rebuilding. 4. Ensuring adequate professional planning capacities at the municipal level. 5. Topographical difficulties in constructing new communities on higher ground. 6. Economic/environmental conflicts. 7. Securing labour and resources needed for reconstruction while … 8. Maintaining a high quality of life elsewhere in Japan. 9. Maintaining a stable electricity supply while … 10. Reforming the energy system. 11. Planning for regeneration while … 12. Acknowledging shrinkage. 13. Recovering public trust in agricultural and marine products. 14. Resettlement/use of the areas around Fukushima Daiichi. 15. Recovery/return of lost social, cultural, and human capital.

The Future: Can Japan Recover? Japan will not collapse tomorrow. • Tohoku accounts for under 10% of the national economy. • Was the disaster is too small to enable national transformation? Can Tōhoku recover? • A realistic appraisal suggests continued, perhaps accelerated, shrinkage and decline. • A delicate balance should be struck. • Must not return to the past, but … • Need to root recovery in what the region possesses already. What are the consequence of the nuclear disaster? • Nuclear power is likely to remain, but will probably be reduced. • Renewable generation will expand, with locally owned and managed wind, geothermal, tidal etc. Potential for local economic revival (See Fintry, Scotland. ) • Fukushima Daiichi to be decommissioned and the area turned into a marine park or mega-solar array.

Conclusion: Transformation or Status Quo? Tohoku will remain a shrinking region • Ageing, low-fertility, out-migration and depopulation will continue. • Danger of false expectations: Reconstruction will take longer than anticipated. • This will discourage return and resettlement. • Reconstruction and recovery complicated by the status of decommissioning works at Fukushima (which may take decades to complete). Japan overall may not be transformed • Economic and political systems may be too rigid; too many particularist interests. • Early signs show a desire for ‘normalisation’ at all levels of politics and society. • A few strong challenges show some signs of emerging (e. g. Governor Hashimoto of Osaka, but these remain local (for now). Japan’s energy system will undergo gradual reform, but it may take a long time. • Competition from small/local providers. • Feed-in tariffs. • More renewables and less nuclear (geothermal and wind; biomass etc. ). • Cost and difficulty of decommissioning.

Appendix 1. References Asahi Shimbunsha (eds. ) (2011). Higashi Nihon daishinsai: Hōdō shashin zenkiroku 2011. 3. 11– 4. 11 [The Great East Japan Earthquake: a complete record of the photographic coverage 11 March to 11 April 2011]. Tokyo: Asahi Shimbun Shuppan. Japan Times (2011) 90% of disaster casualties drowned. Japan Times Online [online], 21 April. Available from: http: //search. japantimes. co. jp/cgi-bin/nn 20110421 a 5. html [Accessed 1 June 2011]. NIPSSR (National Institute of Population and Social Security Research) (2003) To-dō-fu-ken no shōrai suikei jinkō (Heisei 14 -nen 3 -gatsu suikei) ni tsuite [online]. NIPSSR. Available from: http: //www. ipss. go. jp/ppfuken/j/fuken 2002/Gaiyo 02. asp [Accessed 3 January 2010]. Sankei Shimbunsha (eds. ) (2011) Tatakau Nippon: Higashi Nihon daishinsai 1 -kagetsu no zenkiroku [Japan battles: A complete record of The Great East Japan Earthquake one month on]. Tokyo: Sankei Shimbunsha. Sankei. Photo (2011) Sankei. Photo home page. Available from http: //photo. sankei. jp. msn. com/kodawari/data/Earthquake/201103/31/kuusatsu 1 [Accessed 9 June 2011]. Shogakukan Creative et al. (eds. ) (2011) Chizu de yomu higashi nihon daishinsai [Reading the Great East Japan Earthquake Disaster via Maps]. Seibido: Tokyo. Statistics Bureau (2011) Population census [online]. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Available from: http: //www. stat. go. jp/english/data/kokusei/index. htm [Accessed 1 June 2011].

Appendix 2. My experience of the event My Circumstances in March 2011 Living in Kyoto (521 km distance from Fukushima). 1 year research leave to study regional employment and revitalisation in Japan. On the day in Kyoto A lovely sunny early spring day. Visiting the International Manga Museum in Kyoto. Back to my office by 2. 45. Booted computer and opened Facebook to find news of the event. Cycled home immediately to watch TV. Watched the disaster unfold live for many hours. Succeeding Weeks and Months First Week: Every morning woke up to find the situation even worse than the night before. First Month: Stayed at home glued to TV and reading press reports. Welcomed various people (friends, students, colleagues) travelling away from the disaster. Kept in touch with University of Sheffield and assisted in managing response. First 6 Months: Wrote a journal article. Gathered research materials. August 2011 travelled to Sendai, Rikuzentakata , and Ishinomaki to take photos. Left Japan in late August 2011 to return to Sheffield.

Appendix 3. Internet Resources Geophysics Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Tōhoku Earthquake Portal United States Geological Survey (USGS) Japan Earthquake Information Tōhoku Earthquake Report University of Tokyo, Earthquake Research Institute Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (NOAA) General Information on Japan Statistics Bureau of Japan Statistical Handbook of Japan Statistical Yearbook National Institute of Population and Social Security Research Japan Guide Japan Times Great East Japan Earthquake , Tsunami and Nuclear Meltdown Japan Quake Map Cabinet Office Earthquake Site Reconstruction Agency Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 3. 11 Resources Guardian – Japan Disaster BBC News – Japan Earthquake Tōhoku Planning Forum Square Japan in the UK The Japan Society GB-Sasakawa Foundation Daiwa Anglo-Japanese Foundation The Japan Foundation UK Japan Local Government Centre, London Embassy of Japan in the UK Japan-UK Events Calendar British Association for Japanese Studies Hyper Japan Atomic Industrial Forum Nuclear Industrial Safety Agency International Energy Agency (IEA) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log Teacher and Student Interest Discover Japanese Studies Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme How to Make Sushi at Home electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies

Recent publications Matanle, P. and Sato, Y. (2010) Coming to a City Near You! Learning to Live ‘Beyond Growth’ in Japan’s Shrinking Regions, Social Science Japan Journal, 13 (2): 187 -210. Matanle, P. , Rausch, A. , with the Shrinking Regions Research Group (2011) Japan’s Shrinking Regions in the 21 st Century: Contemporary Responses to Depopulation and Socioeconomic Decline, Amherst, NY: Cambria Press. Matanle, P. (2011) The Great East Japan Earthquake, Tsunami and Nuclear Meltdown: Towards the (Re)Construction of a Safe, Sustainable, and Compassionate Society in Japan’s Shrinking Regions, Local Environment, 16 (9): 823 -847 Matanle, P. and Iles, T. (Eds) (2012) Researching Twenty-First Century Japan: New Directions and Approaches for the Electronic Age, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Dr. Peter Matanle University of Sheffield p. matanle@sheffield. ac. uk www. matanle. net Thank you for your attention!