The Enlightenment OH HUMANITY GETS SOOO MUCH BETTER

The Enlightenment OH, HUMANITY GETS SOOO MUCH BETTER IN THE 18 TH CENTURY

The Basics �Philosophes: Thinkers and writers of the Enlightenment �Begins in Paris Spreads to England, Netherlands, German states Even reaches Poland Russia Orthodox Christians carry into Balkans �Education vital to spread of the Enlightenment

Three Stages First half of 18 th century 1. Most directly reflects Scientific Revolution 2. “High Enlightenment” Begins with Montesquieu’s The Spirit of the Laws (1748) Ends with death of Voltaire and Rousseau (1778) 3. Late Enlightenment Moves from human reason to emotions and passions Economic freedoms Enlightened absolutists

Enlightened Ideas �Implications revolutionary Progress had been restrained by institutions not reflecting humanity Skeptical of received truths � Challenged doctrinal authority of Churches Source of most modern political beliefs � Rule by law, not rulers � Popular sovereignty (based on people or their interests) � Rulers to look out for welfare of people

Intellectual influences �John Locke (1632 -1704) Believed scientific method could be applied to society Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) � Humans a tabula rasa at birth Right to life, liberty, and property Liberty and rights stem from laws of nature Leading proponent of freedom of the press, religious toleration, and separation of political powers �Scientific Revolution Voltaire: Salutes SR’s emphasis on examination, not conjecture David Hume: All knowledge from critical inquiry and discovery Resistance to religion Moral relativity

“Republic of Letters” �Republic of Letters: International community of philosophes Voltaire claims writers at top of social summit �Disagreement among philosophes Too diverse in class, age, nationality Could not agree on ideal state: Monarchy, parliament, direct democracy Religion: Many deists, some Christians, some atheists �Four dominant personalities: Montesquieu Voltaire Diderot Rousseau

Montesquieu �Charles-Louis de Secondat (1689 -1755) Landed noble, studied law, presidency of Bordeaux parlement Persian Letters (1721) � Nature reveals universal standard of justice for all people First critical examination of slavery � Against natural law �Spirit of Laws (1748) Applies observation, experimentation to states Viewed historical development of states � Each evolves differently Fascinated by British parliamentary system Believed noble rights could stave off monarchical despotism

Voltaire � François-Marie Arouet (1694 -1778) Son of notary: lawyer--brash, ambitious dramatist-poet Sent to Bastille � Political Views Anglophile (fled to England 1726 -29) Freedom of press, commercialism, toleration Sees parliaments as answer, but not for France Counts on enlightened monarchy to protect people � Hatred of the Church ‘Destroy the horrible thing’ If God good, why the Portuguese earthquake? Religion offers people hope, keeps them in line Calas affair: Brings intolerance into limelight � Spends life attacking irrationality, intolerance, and superstition Candide � Sees revolution as inevitable

Diderot and the Encyclopedia �Denis Diderot (1713 -1784) Son of artisan, man of letters’ Educated by Jesuits Pens pornographic novel �Encyclopedia (1751 -1771) Greatest monument of Enlightenment 140 authors � Diderot – 5, 000 articles � Rousseau – 344 � 60, 000 articles, 2, 885 illustrations in 28 volumes � Classify all knowledge � Spreads to “middling sorts” –censored Challenges monarchical authority

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 -1778) � Idealizes emotion, instinct, spontaneity � Background Protestant from Geneva Arrogant, self-righteous loner Exiled from Paris, returns to Geneva Abandons children to orphanage Goes to England Quarrelsome—always the other’s fault � Belief in primitive good Civilization corrupts humankind Republics the ultimate form of government � Social Contract (1762) Surrender natural rights to the “general will” Citizens live in peace because ruled by other citizens Sovereignty comes from collective search for freedom Primitiveness as virtue

Religious fanaticism and skepticism �Catholic reformation = Some gains �Pietists (Germany): Belief in individual conscience Bible readings and discussion groups �Methodists (Britain): John Wesley (1703 -1791) Infuse ordinary people with religious enthusiasm Personal conversion, equal in God’s eyes Stressed work, self-discipline, and abstinence �Generally: Falling away from religion Resentment of tithes, etc.

Expansion of cultural base �Rise in literacy ½ of all males in England, France, Netherlands, Germany 1/3 to ½ of women in same areas = literate �Newspapers and publications Spread rapidly in England in 18 th Novels gain in popularity � Women novelists gain a voice History becomes popular & modern discipline � Gibbon: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire �Lending libraries and private libraries Authors like Montesquieu, Buffon, Voltaire become hits

Spread of arts and music �Salons Largely organized by women No fear of censorship, police Madame Geoffrin: “He was my husband…and he’s dead. ” (Mesmerism) �Academies Formal gatherings for science and philosophy French academies: King and public Interpreting sciences for a more general audience �Masonic lodges Bring together free-thinkers Faith in progress, toleration, critical of inst. religion

Arts and music �Rococo (Louis XV style) �Music: From patronage to private support Handel (1685 -1759) – English patrons Franz Joseph Haydn (1732 -1809) – Esterhazy Kappelmeister �Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 -1791) Child prodigy Temperamental Court of Salzburg Varied, freely articulated compositions Died poor

Enlightened Absolutism �Supported by Voltaire and Diderot �Cesare Beccaria (1738 -1794) Greatest influence as a Enlightenment reformer On Crimes and Punishment (1764) � State to protect, respect dignity � Rich and poor stand equal � Punishment = Damage done (utilitarianism) � Opposed torture, capital punishment

Frederick II �Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804): Enlightenment intellectual liberation, but not political or social �Frederick II (r. 1740 -1786) “the Great” Flute-playing “Philosopher-king” Voltaire guest for two years “Make people happy as is compatible with human nature” “First servant of the state” Freed serfs on royal domains (1763) Judicial reforms � No punishment of serfs physically Relaxed censorship and abolished capital punishment

Frederick II as Reformer �Rationalized and simplified Prussian law �Encouraged/protected industry �Promoted scientific agriculture �Encouraged immigration to Prussia of tradesmen and professionals �Prussian Code (1794—after death): “complete freedom of religion and conscience”

Frederick II as Statesman �Remains despot �Reforms intended to make state more powerful Fewer serfs=Larger army Some commoners do rise Competitive exams=Superior civil service �Society divided in Code: Nobles Bourgeois Commoners �State always takes precedent �Squanders men and treasure in pursuit of glory

The Habsburgs: Maria-Theresa and Joseph II � Maria-Theresa (r. 1740 -1780) (son Joseph II is regent) Reforms bureaucracy Forces nobles to pay taxes Limits labor required of serfs � Joseph II (r. 1780 -1790) as emperor Reformed law Declared religious toleration Dissolved contemplative monasteries, builds hospitals Imposes German language on all administration Abolishes serfdom Grants serfs land � Restricting labor obligations = Owe state more taxes, longer military service Peasants remain indebted to lords � Educational Reforms Education to ensure supply of civil servants Structure from primary to university (2 X Bohemian elem. ) � Opposition: Aristocracy, Roman Catholic Church, Belgians, Hungarians � Establishes secret police to watch enemies

Catherine the Great (1762 -1796) �First ruler since Peter to have a long reign �German princess �Comes to throne after coup against her husband �Read Montesquieu, Voltaire--hosted Diderot � 1767 = names legislative commission elected by all free men to reform law �Sought to Westernize Encourages publishing, journalism Establishes skeletal school system (incl. elite school for girls)

Catherine the Great �Pugachev’s Rebellion (1773 -74) Initially successful, crushed by imperial forces Pugachev and supporters executed Future reforms designed to increase royal power, noble alligience, and extension of serfdom �Charter of Nobility (1785) Confirms property, right to serfs Nobles may travel abroad She imprisons those who disagree �“The Great” Conquests of Poland (1795 -1797) Wars against Ottomans (1768 -1774 and 1787 -1792)

The Partition of Poland �Land split by Russia, Austria, and Prussia 1772 1793 1795 �Proved that without a strong bureaucracy, monarchy and army, a nation could not survive

The End of the Eighteenth Century in Central and Eastern Europe �Nations became more conservative and politically more repressive �Fading monarchs Frederick the Great of Prussia – grew remote with age and left the aristocracy to fill government posts Joseph II of Austria – in response to criticism turned to censorship and the secret police Catherine the Great of Russia – peasant uprisings (Pugachev) led to fears of social and political upheaval

Late Enlightenment �British economists apply concepts of economic freedom to workings of economy �New “discoveries” of national cultures �Weak French writers cause uproar �Emphasis on historical roots of national culture = way of conceptualizing national identity

Enlightenment Thought and Economic Freedom �First attempts to find laws re working of economy �Leads to beginnings of modern economics �Physiocrats Francois Quesnay Land source of all wealth End state interference in agriculture and trade Anne-Robert Turgot (1727 -1781) � Louis XVI’s controller general � Freeing resulted in grain riots

Adam Smith (1723 -1790) �Born in Kircaldy, Scotland Attends Glasgow U. at 14, Balliol College Glasgow: Chair of Logic, Moral Philosophy Tutor to Scottish Duke Two year European tour � Meets Voltaire, Rousseau, Quesnay, and Turgot �Theory of Moral Sentiments - Ethics and charity

An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) � Self-interest in a free market leads to economic well-being � The “Invisible hand” “It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we can expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest”. “By directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. ” � Division of Labor Ten workers could produce 48, 000 pins per day if each of eighteen specialized tasks was assigned to particular workers. Average PRODUCTIVITY: 4, 800 pins per worker per day. Absent the division of labor, worker would be lucky to produce even one pin per day. � Wage rate differences � Laissez-faire If left alone, economy would thrive naturally Opposed guild restrictions and monopolies Opposed trade barriers and protectionism � Most revolutionary concept in history

Wealth of Nations, cont. �Powerful opposition to mercantilism A great empire has been established for the sole purpose of raising up a nation of customers who should be obliged to buy from the shops of our different producers all the goods with which these could SUPPLY them. For the sake of that little enhancement of price which this MONOPOLY might afford our producers, the home-consumers have been burdened with the whole expense of maintaining and defending that empire. For this purpose, and for this purpose only, in the two last wars, more than a hundred and seventy millions [in pounds] has been contracted over and above all that had been expended for the same purpose in former wars. The interest of this debt alone is not only greater than the whole extraordinary profit, which, it ever could be pretended, was made by the monopoly of the colony trade, but than the whole value of that trade, or than the whole value of the goods, which at an average have been annually exported to the colonies