The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence by

The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence by Kathleen Stassen Berger Seventh Edition Chapter 9 The Play Years: Cognitive Development Slides prepared by Kate Byerwalter, Ph. D. , Grand Rapids Community College

Preoperational Thought (Piaget) n Preoperational thought (ages 2 -6 years) is characterized by: ¨ Egocentrism ¨ Centration ¨ Focus on appearance ¨ Static reasoning ¨ Irreversibility ¨ Lack of conservation Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Egocentrism n Egocentrism is the tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective. ¨ Example: A child tries to comfort his upset father by giving him a teddy bear. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Centration n Centration is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others. ¨ Example: A child insists that lions and tigers are not “cats”! n This is a type of egocentrism. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Focus on Appearance n When looking at something, young children tend to focus only on what is apparent, ignoring other relevant attributes. ¨ Example: A girl with a short haircut “must” be a boy. Or the “taller” child must be “older. ” Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Static Reasoning n Young children assume the world is unchanging. ¨ Example: A boy is surprised to learn that “his” teacher is also someone’s mother! n If things DO change, they occur totally and suddenly (e. g. , a child “wakes up” tall). Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Irreversibility n Irreversibility is the idea that nothing can be undone. It is the failure to recognize that reversal of a process can sometimes restore something to its original state. ¨ Example: A child refuses to eat a hamburger that is “contaminated” by lettuce, even after the lettuce is removed. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

(Lack of) Conservation n Conservation is the idea that the amount of a substance remains the same, despite changes in its appearance. n Piaget found that most preoperational thinkers lack conservation. ¨ Example: Break a cookie in half, and a young child might think there are 2 cookies! Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Updating Piaget’s Research n Research following Piaget has found that preoperational thinkers demonstrate more advanced abilities IF the testing situation is modified (e. g. , nonverbal, or with a “naughty bear” moving things), and/or the objects used are familiar. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Vygotsky: Children as Learners n Lev Vygotsky viewed a child as an apprentice in thinking: one whose cognition is stimulated and directed by older and more skilled members of society who provide instruction and encouragement. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Helping Children Learn n Guided participation is the process by which children learn from others who guide their experiences. ¨ Example: n helping a child with a puzzle Scaffolding: sensitive structuring of the learning experience Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Guided Participation DAVE BARTRUFF / STOCK, BOSTON Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Zone of Proximal Development n ZPD is Vygotsky’s term for the skills a person can do with assistance, but not yet alone. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Language as a Tool n Vygotsky believed language was essential to the development of thought (through social mediation). n Private speech: internal dialogue that helps develop new ideas and solve problems (young children do this out loud) Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Make it Real: Children’s Thinking n As a few young children (ages 2− 7) the following questions, and record the answers: Why does the sun come up? n Where do dreams come from? n (Make up one of your own) n Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Children’s Theories n Theory-theory: Children attempt to explain everything they see and hear by constructing theories! n They ask lots of questions about human behavior and natural things. ¨ Example: “Why do you kiss mom? ” “Why does it rain? ” Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Theory of Mind n Theory of mind is a person’s theory of what other people might be thinking. n It requires the realization that people’s thoughts are unique and personal. n It develops considerably around age 4 years. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Theory of Mind (cont. ) n The development of theory of mind is influenced by: ¨ Language ability ¨ Siblings ¨ Brain maturation (prefrontal cortex) ¨ Culture Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Language n Childhood appears to be a sensitive period for language–a time when language learning happens most easily. n 2 -6 yr olds learn an average of 10 new words a day! n This process is helped by fast-mapping. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

What is “Fast Mapping”? n Fast mapping is the speedy and imprecise way in which children learn new words by mentally charting them into categories. ¨ Example: A child has an “animal” category in mind. Therefore, learning “tiger” is easy if he already knows “lion. ” Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Language Errors n Young children sometimes use language errors: ¨ Time, place, and comparison words are difficult, as well as metaphors ¨ Overregularization: applying grammar rules even when exceptions occur n Example: He “goed” to the store. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Bilingualism n Bilingual children by age 5 have more advanced theory of mind, but may lag in linguistic skills such as reading. n There is considerable debate about how and when a second language should be taught. n Immigrant children may feel pressure to speak the “new” language. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Bilingualism (cont. ) n A good solution is for a child to become a balanced bilingual, equally fluent in two languages. n Early childhood is an optimal time for this to occur. Young children may make errors, but eventually sort out the languages. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Learning to Read n Emergent literacy: early skills (e. g. , letter recognition, page sequencing) that help children learn to read n What fosters emergent literacy? ¨ Being read to by an adult ¨ Symbolic play ¨ Making up songs and rhymes Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Reading Together: A Gift to All MICHAEL WICKES / THE IMAGE WORKS Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Early Childhood Education n Most 3 -5 year olds in developed nations attend some type of school or preschool. Programs differ in philosophy and goals. n Three main types are: ¨ Child-centered ¨ Academic ¨ Intervention Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Child-Centered Programs n Inspired by Piaget and Vygotsky; children are free to play and explore with guidance n Materials such as art, blocks, dress-up clothes are arranged for self-exploration n Children are encouraged to learn through play (e. g. , make up songs, games, etc. ) Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Learning is FUN! LAURA DWIGHT Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Montessori Schools n Maria Montessori (in 1936) believed that children need structured, individualized projects that give them a sense of accomplishment. n Pretend and dramatic play is not encouraged–learning is the emphasis. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Reggio Emilia Approach n Reggio Emilia is a region in Italy in which early education is high-quality and funded by the city. n The schools value art and creative play, and have a low teacher-child ratio, and high parent and teacher involvement. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

A Reggio Emilia Inspired Room ATELIER FROM “OPEN WINDOWS, ” © MUNICIPALITY OF REGGIO-EMMILIA–INFANT-TODDLER CENTERS AND PRESCHOOLS, PUBLISHED BY REGGIO CHILDREN 1994. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Teacher-Directed Programs n These programs stress preparation for school ¨ Teach children letters, numbers, shapes ¨ Teach how to sit and listen quietly ¨ Teachers direct the events of the day Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Intervention Programs n Project Head Start is a federal program for low-income children (since 1965). n Goals include preparing kids for school, involving parents, providing nutrition and health care. n Programs vary in quality and outcomes Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Experimental Programs n Other intervention programs include: ¨ Perry (High Scope) project ¨ Abecedarian ¨ Child-Parent centers n These programs are effective in enhancing children’s cognitive skills Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Think About It n Intervention programs are costly in the short term, costing several thousand dollars per child per year. n However, they are cost saving in the long run in terms of decreased need for special education for many children! Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Quality Matters n A consistent finding in developmental research is that high-quality early childhood programs are associated with high-quality outcomes for children. n Quality measures include trained staff, low adult-child ratio, positive interactions, safety, adequate space, and a curriculum. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9

Make it Real: Early Childhood Education n Pretend money is no object. Design the “ideal” early childhood education program. Consider a child’s social, cognitive, and physical development. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 9