The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence by
The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence by Kathleen Stassen Berger Seventh Edition Chapter 12 The School Years: Cognitive Development Slides prepared by Kate Byerwalter, Ph. D. , Grand Rapids Community College
A Prime Time for Learning n Children in the school years are inquisitive and eager to learn new skills. PHOTODISC Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Piaget’s Third Stage n Concrete operational thought is the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions. n Children in this stage become more systematic, objective, and scientific thinkers –but only about tangible, visible things. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Logical Principles n Classification: organization into groups according to common property ¨ Example: Show 5 collies and 2 poodles. Ask, “Are there more collies or dogs? ” ¨ Kids in middle childhood know that collies are a subcategory of “dogs. ” Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Essence and Change n Identity: certain characteristics of an object remain the same even if other characteristics change n Examples: frozen water is still water; a butterfly was once a caterpillar; liquid in smaller glass is the same liquid Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Essence and Change (cont. ) n Reversibility: reversing the process by which something was changed brings the original conditions n Example: if 5 + 9 = 14, then 14 – 9 must equal 5! Also, imagine pouring H 2 O back in conservation task. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Essence and Change (cont. ) n Reciprocity is the principle that things may change in opposite ways, and thus balance each other out. n Example: A child states that the decreased height in the shorter is balanced out by its increased width. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Practical Applications n The logical principles of concrete operational thought make learning easier and more fun. n Example: Children enjoy classifying cities, states, nations, etc. , or knowing that a tadpole turns into a frog (identity). Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Logic and Culture n Lev Vygotsky believed that culture shapes cognition more than Piaget believed. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Logic and Culture: An Example n Brazilian street children calculate complex computations not learned in school (see text p. 361) VICTOR RUIZ CABLLERO / AP/ WIDE WORLD PHOTOS Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Moral Development n Develops along with cognitive advances n Is shaped by culture and social influences n Middle childhood is a key time for learning moral lessons Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development n Kohlberg presented moral dilemmas and scored responses as: ¨ Preconventional: ¨ Conventional: rewards and punishment emphasis on social rules ¨ Postconventional: moral principles “beyond” societal standards Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory n Moral reasoning does seem to advance with advances in cognitive development. n Most children are preconventional before age 8, and conventional by age 9 years. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Criticisms of Kohlberg n He may have underestimated the potential of school-age children. n His research was done on Western males. n It may be better to address practical issues such as feeding the poor (vs. hypothetical dilemmas). Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Morality and Gender n Carol Gilligan believed that females are more likely to develop a morality of care, in which nurturance and compassion are more important than a morality of justice, which emphasizes absolute judgments of right and wrong. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Was Gilligan right? n Research has found NO clear gender distinction regarding morality of care or justice (boys and girls are equally likely to use each). APICHART WEERAWONG / AP PHOTO Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Information Processing n Analyzes how the mind analyzes, stores, and retrieves information. n Cognition becomes more efficient in middle childhood. RUBBERBALL PRODUCTIONS Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
The Three “Parts” of Memory n Sensory register: registers incoming stimuli for a split second n Working memory (short term): where current, conscious mental activity occurs n Long-term memory = stores information for minutes, hours, days, months, years ¨ Unlimited capacity (!) Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Speed of Processing n Speed of processing increases during middle childhood. n This allows a child to process more thoughts quickly, retain more thoughts in memory, and simultaneously process two different thoughts. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Automatization n Certain skills become automatic during middle childhood (e. g. , reading, writing). n This increases intellectual capacity and speed of processing. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Make it Real: Learning a Subject n Do you find it easier to learn new material in your major field of interest than in a brand new subject? n Why do think that is? Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Knowledge Base n Knowledge base: a body of knowledge in an area that makes it easier to master new learning n Interest, motivation, and practice determine the size of the knowledge base. ¨ Example: experts child chess experts, Pokémon Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Knowledge of Pokémon and Wildlife Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Control Processes n Control processes regulate the analysis of information within the information processing system, and increase during middle childhood. n Examples: selective attention, retrieval strategies, metacognition Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Improvements in Control Processes n Selective attention: the ability to screen out irrelevant distractions and concentrate on a task n Metacognition: the ability to evaluate a task and determine how to accomplish it Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Language: New Vocabulary n School-age kids learn up to 20 new words a day. n They understand metaphors and various uses of words. ¨ Examples: egg, “walking on eggshells, ” “last one is a rotten egg, ” egg salad, etc. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Two “Codes” of Language n Formal Code: used in school and other “formal” situations ¨ Extensive ¨ Complex ¨ Lengthy vocabulary syntax sentences Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Two “Codes” of Language (cont. ) n Informal code: language used with friends ¨ Fewer words, simpler syntax ¨ Gestures and intonation convey meaning ¨ Vital for social acceptance Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Code Switching: A Life Saver n Kids in middle childhood learn that certain words and phrases are okay with friends (informal code), but NOT with teachers, pastors, or other adults. n Failure to learn this could result in punishment for calling the teacher “dude”! Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Socioeconomics and Language n Lower-income children tend to have smaller vocabularies, simpler grammar, and more difficulty in reading. n Two key explanations for this: ¨ Exposure to language ¨ Parental expectations towards education Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
A Hopeful Study n A study of low-income children demonstrated that exposure to language was a key predictor of language development. n Real world application: TALK with kids! Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Tones and Tricks n By 10 years of age, children learn to understand the nuances of language (tone, sarcasm, puns). n Example: 10 year olds recognized that saying “I lost my stickers” in a happy voice is strange. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Make it Real: Education n If you could design the ideal educational environment, what would it look like? Be specific. Think about class size, curriculum, sports, scheduling, etc. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Teaching and Learning n The curriculum for school-age children varies. Some possibilities include: reading, writing, math, arts, physical education, oral expression, religion. n Funding for education also varies greatly. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
The Hidden Curriculum n The hidden curriculum is the unofficial, unstated rules that influence learning. n Examples: discipline strategies, teacher salaries, class size, testing, schedules, emphasis on sports, segregation by ethnicity, physical condition of the school Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
International Tests n International comparisons of achievement have found that the United States is not among the top scoring developed nations. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Education in Japan n Harold Stevenson (U of M) documented key aspects that help Japanese students: ¨ Strong parental involvement ¨ Teachers paid well, given time to prepare ¨ Longer school days ¨ Effort is highly valued Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Education in Japan n Unfortunately, the strong emphasis on education has caused a phobia of school for too many Japanese children. n The government is now working towards a more “relaxed education. ” Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Make it Real: The No Child Left Behind Act n This Act requires yearly testing and a certain level of achievement in order for schools to receive federal funding. n Were you affected by this Act? Do you think it is a good idea? Why or why not? Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
The No Child Left Behind Act n The Act is controversial. Some questions include: ¨ What about the arts and physical education? ¨ Does it punish schools that need funding the most? ¨ Should ¨ What graduation (or not) depend on a test? about special needs students? Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
The Reading Wars n Phonics approach: teaching reading by first teaching the sounds of each letter n Whole-language: teaching reading by early use of all language skills–talking, listening, reading, and writing n BOTH approaches are valuable Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Quiz: Which approach is this? Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
The Math Wars n Math is an often feared subject, but one of utmost importance. n New curriculum discourages rote learning, emphasizing problem solving, and understanding of concepts. n The focus is on the thought process, not just the final answer. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Class Size n Research on the relationship between class size and academic achievement has yielded mixed results. n Confounding factors include the types of students in the study, the qualifications of teachers, and suitable classrooms. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Bilingual Education n About 4 million U. S. children are English-language learners (ELL). JOHN O’BRIAN / CANADA IN STOCK, INC. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Bilingual Education (cont. ) n Middle childhood is an ideal time to teach a second language. n However, there is considerable debate about when and how to teach a second language. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Types of nd 2 Language Programs n Total immersion: all instruction in second language n Reverse immersion: instruction of basic subjects in first language, then second language is taught n Bilingual education: instruction in both languages Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Types of 2 nd Language Programs (cont. ) n Heritage language classes: after school classes to connect with native culture n English as a second language (ESL): exclusive English for a few months, in preparation for “regular” classes Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
Which type is best? n Research in Canada found the total immersion approach to be very successful. n However, there is no one right answer. The goal is to help immigrant children preserve their culture, while learning the new language. Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7 th Edition, Chapter 12
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