THE COLONIES BECOME NEW NATIONS 1945 PRESENT AFRICA

THE COLONIES BECOME NEW NATIONS 1945 – PRESENT

AFRICA Ghana, Kenya, Algeria, Congo & Angola

Introduction “We went into Sharpeville the back way, around lunch time last Monday, driving along behind a big grey police car and three armoured cars. As we went through the fringes of the township many people were shouting the Pan-Africanist slogan ‘Our Land. ’ They were grinning and cheerful…Then the shooting started. We heard the chatter of a machine gun, then another…One woman was hit about ten years from our car…Hundreds of kids were running, too. Some of the children, hardly as tall as the grass, were leaping like rabbits. Some of them were shot too. ” -Humphrey Taylor, reporting on a march by black South Africans against white rule, March, 1960

Achieving Independence • NEGRITUDE MOVEMENT – movement in which French-speaking Africans and West Indians celebrated their heritage of traditional African culture and values • Actually began decades before WWII; helped push for independence • When WWII erupted, African soldiers fought alongside Europeans to “defend freedom” and this experience made them unwilling to accept colonial domination when they returned home • WWII also changed the ways Europeans thought as well • Many began to question the cost, as well as morality of maintaining colonies abroad

Achieving Independence • The ways in which African nations achieved independence differed across the continent • Two different forms in which Europeans governed in colonial Africa • Direct • Foreigners governed at all levels and no self-rule existed • Independence came with more difficulty – often resulted in wars • Indirect • Local officials did much of the governing and colonists enjoyed limited self-rule • Independence was generally an easier transition *No matter how they gained their freedom, most new African nations had to deal with everything from creating a new government to establishing a postcolonial economy; ethnic strife led to instability, violence, and an overall struggle to deal with newly gained independence*

Ghana Leads the Way • British colony of the Gold Coast became the first African colony south of the Sahara to achieve independence • After WWII, British allowed more Africans to be nominated to the Legislative Council • Africans wanted full freedom • Kwame Nkrumah • Leader of a non-violent movement • Starting in 1947, he worked to liberate the Gold Coast from the British • Organized strikes and boycotts • Ultimately, was unsuccessful

Ghana Leads the Way • 1957, Gold Coast, renamed to Ghana after achieving independence – honored the famous West African kingdom from the past • Nkrumah became Ghana’s first prime minster and later its president-for-life • Expanded roads, new schools and health facilities • Programs for industrialization, health and welfare and expanded educational facilities showed good intentions, but the expense of these programs undermined the economy • 1966, Nkrumah was in China and the army took this opportunity to seized power • Ever since, Ghana has shifted back and forth between civilian and military rule – 2000 they held their first open elections

Fighting for Independence • The British also controlled Kenya and many British setters resisted Kenyan independence – especially those who had taken over prize farmland • Forced to accept African self-government as a result of two developments: strong leadership and the rise of the Mau • Jomo Kenyatta • Educated in Great Britain, returned to Kenya in 1946 and founded the Kenyan African National Union, which sought to gain independence • Mau used guerilla tactics to push white farmers into leaving the highlands • While not connected to the Mau, he also refused to condemn them and as a result, the British imprisoned him for close to a decade

Fighting for Independence • 1963, Kenya was granted independence, but at the expense of more than 10, 000 Africans and 100 settlers lives • Jomo Kenyatta became president and worked hard to unite the country’s various ethnic and language groups • Died in 1978 • Daniel arap Moi succeeded Kenyatta, but was less successful in governing and faced increasing opposition • Moi stepped down in 2002, and a new party gained power through free elections

Fighting for Independence • France’s principal overseas colony, Algeria, had a population of 1 MILLION French colonists and 9 MILLION Arabs and Berber Muslims • After WWII, French colonists refused to share political power with the native Algerians • 1954, Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) announced its intention to fight for independence • French in response sent half a million troops to fight the FLN • Atrocities were committed on both sides, but the FLN prevailed; Algeria gained independence in 1962

Fighting for Independence • Leader of the FLN, Ahmed Ben Bella, became Algeria’s first president and attempted to make Algeria a socialist state • 1965, overthrown by his army commander • 1965 -1988, Algeria attempted to modernize and industrialize the nation…rather unsuccessfully • Unemployment and dissatisfaction with the government contributed to the rise of religious fundamentalists who wanted to make Algeria an Islamic state • 1990 -1991, the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) won local and parliamentary elections; however, the ruling government and army refused to accept the election results • Civil war broke out between Islamic militants and the government…and the war continues on and off to this day

Civil War in Congo & Angola • All of the European possessions in Africa, one of the most exploited was the Belgian Congo • Belgium had ruthlessly plundered the colony’s rich resources of rubber and copper, in addition to ruling harshly and provided no social services for the population • 1960, Belgium granted independence, but made no attempt to prepare the people for independence, so very quickly upheaval ensued • 1971 -1997, known as Zaire

Civil War in Congo & Angola • Colonel Joseph Mobutu, later known as Mobutu Sese Seko, seized power in 1965 and for the next 32 years, Mobutu ruled the counted through a combination of force, one-party rule and gifts to supporters • Successfully withstood several armed rebellions • 1997, overthrown by rebel leader Laurent Kabila after months of civil war • Renamed Democratic Republic of Congo (as it still known today) • Kabila promised free elections that never came and in 2001 he was assassinated by a bodyguard • His son, Joseph Kabila took power and began a quest for peace • 2002 some rebel forces agreed to a cease-fire offering hope that one day peace might become a reality

Civil War in Congo & Angola • Portuguese had long ruled Angola and had no desire to stop • When an independence movement broke out, Portugal sent 50, 000 troops • The cost of the conflict was almost half of Portugal’s national debt! • Cost of fighting and home front opposition to the war forced the Portuguese to withdraw from Angola in 1975 • Almost immediately, the Communist-leaning Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) declared itself the new nation’s rightful government • Led to prolonged civil war • Various rebel groups fought the government and each other for power

Civil War in Congo & Angola • MPLA was assisted by Cuban and Soviet Union troops • UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) was the major opposition to the MPLA and was assisted by South Africa and the U. S. – Leader was Jonas Savimbi • For decades, the two sides agreed to and then abandoned various cease-fire agreements • 2002 the warring sides agreed to a peace accord and the long civil war came to an end

GUIDING TAKE-AWAY *After WWII, African leaders threw off colonial rule and created independent countries. Today, many of those independent countries are engaged in building political and economic stability. *

MIDDLE EAST Israel, Arab nations, & Palestine

Introduction “The land of Israel was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and national identity was formed. In their exile from the land of Israel the Jews remained faithful to it in all the countries of their dispersal, never ceasing to hope and pray for the restoration of their national freedom. Therefore by virtue of the natural and historic right of the Jewish people to be a nation as other nations, and of the Resolution of the General Assembly of the United Nations, we hereby proclaim the establishment of the Jewish nation in Palestine, to be called the State of Israel. ” -David Ben-Guiron, announcement to the people assembled at Museum Hall of Tel Aviv, May 14, 1948

Let’s Review… • The land now called Palestine consists of Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip • For Jews, their claim to the land goes back 3, 000 years when Jewish kings ruled the region from Jerusalem • For Palestinians, the land has belonged to them since most, but not all Jews, were driven out around 135 C. E. • Since the Jews were driven out, they weren’t able to establish their own state and instead settled in different countries throughout the world – DIASPORA • Late 19 th and 20 th centuries, a group of Jews began returning to the region their ancestors had left and they favored a Jewish national homeland in Palestine – ZIONISTS • 1917, British Foreign Secretary Sir Arthur Balfour promoted the idea of creating a Jewish homeland in Palestine and even went so far as to protect the rights of already existing Jewish communities; however, those efforts failed and the hostility between the Palestinians and Jews continued to grow

Let’s Review… • After WWII, the UN took up the matter • 1947, UN General Assembly voted for a partition of Palestine into a Palestinian state and a Jewish state • Terms of the partition gave Jews 55% of the area even though they made up only 34% of the population • In the wake of WWII and the Holocaust, the U. S. and other European nations felt great sympathy for the Jews • All of the Islamic countries voted against the partition and the Palestinians rejected it outright arguing that the UN didn’t have the right to partition a country without considering the wishes of the majority of its people • May 14, 1948, David Ben Gurion (longtime leader of the Jews in Palestine) announced the creation of an independent Israel

Israel & Arab States in Conflict • The day after Israel proclaimed itself a state, six Islamic states – Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Syria – invaded Israel • PAN-ARABISM – Arab unity, regardless of national boundaries • Ended within months with a victory to Israel • War broke out again in 1956, 1967 and 1973; due to the Arab-Israeli tensions several hundred thousand Jews living in Arab lands moved to Israel • Largely due to the fighting, the state that the UN had set aside for the Palestinians never came into being • Israel seized half the land in 1948 -1949 fighting • 600, 000 Palestinians fled, migrating to UN-sponsored refugee camps • Meanwhile, various other Arab nations seized other Palestinian lands • Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip; Jordan annexed the West Bank

Israel & Arab States in Conflict • 1956 Suez Crisis • Egypt seized control of the Suez Canal; Egyptian President Nasser sent troops to take the canal which was controlled by British interests • Prompted by Nasser’s anger over the loss of U. S. and British financial support for the building of Egypt’s Aswan Dam • Outraged, the British made an agreement with France and Israel to retake the canal • With air support, the Israelis marched on the Suez Canal and quickly defeated the Egyptians • Pressure from the U. S. and the USSR forced Israel and the Europeans to withdraw from Egypt *Left Egypt in charge of the canal and thus ended the Suez Crisis*

Israel & Arab States in Conflict • Arab-Israel Wars Continue • Early 1967, Nassar and his Arab allies, equipped with Soviet tanks and aircraft, felt ready to confront Israel • Convinced that the Arabs were about to attack, the Israelis struck airfields in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan and Syria • Became known as the Six-Day War • Israel defeated the Arab states • Israel lost 800 troops, Arab losses exceeded 15, 000 *Israel gained control of Jerusalem, the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights and the West Bank; Palestinians living in Jerusalem were given the choice of Israeli or Jordanian citizenship – most chose Jordanian*

Israel & Arab States in Conflict • Yom Kippur War • October 1973, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat planned a joint Arab attack on Yom Kippur (holiest of Jewish holidays) • Arab forces caught Israelis off guard and inflicted heavy causalities and recaptured some territory lost in 1967 • Under Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir, Israel launched a counterattack and regained most of the lost territory • Both sides agreed to a truce after several weeks of fighting

Israel & Arab States in Conflict • Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) • While the UN had granted the Palestinians their own homeland, the Israelis had seized much of that land during various wars, insisting it was vital to Israel’s national security • 1964, the PLO is created • Originally an umbrella organization made up of laborers, teachers, lawyer and guerrilla fighters with the goal of forming a Palestinian state • 1969, Yasir Arafat became chairman of the PLO and throughout the 1960 s and 1970 s, the group carried out numerous attacks against Israel • Some of the Arab nations supported the PLO’s goals and allowed them to operate from their lands

Efforts at Peace • November 1977, Anwar Sadat extended a hand to Israel *This was a big deal because up to this point, no Arab country even recognized Israel’s right to exist!* • Sadat went before the Knesset (Israeli parliament) and invited them to join him in a quest for peace • In exchange for peace, Israel would have to recognize the rights of Palestinians AND withdraw from territory seized in 1967 • 1978, President Jimmy Carter invited Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin to Camp David to reach an agreement • CAMP DAVID ACCORDS – signed in 1979; first signed agreement between Israel and an Arab country in which Egyptian President Sadat recognized Israel as a legitimate state and Israeli Prime Minister Begin agreed to return the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt

Efforts at Peace • During the 1970 s and 1980 s, the military wing of the PLO intensified its armed struggle against Israel; Israel in turn responded with force, bombing suspected rebel bases in Palestinian towns • 1982, Israeli army went so far as to invade its neighbor Lebanon in an attempt to destroy Palestinian strongholds • Israel soon became involved in Lebanon’s civil war and were forced to withdraw • 1987, Palestinians began to express their frustrations in a widespread campaign of civil disobedience – INTIFADA • Took the form of boycotts, demonstrations, attacks on Israeli soldiers and rock throwing by unarmed teenagers • Continued into the 1990 s, but the civil disobedience affected world opinion, which in turn, put pressure on Israel to seek negotiations with the Palestinians

Efforts at Peace • Oslo Peace Accords • October, 1991, Israeli and Palestinian delegates met for a series of peace talk, but made little progress until 1993, when secret talks were held in Oslo, Norway • OSLO PEACE ACCORDS – 1993 agreement in which Israelis Prime Minister Rabin granted Palestinian self-rule in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank • 1995, Rabin was assassinated by a right-wing Jewish extremist who opposed concessions to the Palestinians • Benjamin Netanyahu succeed him and although he was against the agreement, he did make efforts to keep it • January, 1997, Netanyahu and Arafat met to work out plans for a partial Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank

Peace Slips Away • 1999, the slow and difficult peace negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians seemed to get a boost • Ehud Barak won election as Israel’s Prime Minister and he was viewed as a much stronger supporter of the peace plan than Netanyahu • U. S. was determined to take advantage of this development • July 2000, President Bill Clinton hosted a 15 -day summit meeting at Camp David • Arafat and Barak were unable to reach a compromise and the peace plan was stalled • Two months later an Israeli political leader, Ariel Sharon, visited the Temple Mount, a Jewish holy place…but it is also the location of one of the most holy place for Muslims – the Dome of the Rock

Peace Slips Away • Second intifada began much liked the first one with demonstrations, attacks on Israeli soldiers and rock throwing…but this time, Palestinian militant groups increasingly used suicide bombers • In the first 17 months of the uprising one Israeli had died for every three Palestinians • In response, Israeli forces moved into Palestinian refugee camps and clamped down on militants • Troops destroyed buildings in which they suspected extremists were hiding and bulldozed entire areas of Palestinian towns and camps • Israeli army eve bombed Arafat’s headquarters, trapping him inside for days

Peace Slips Away • Recent years, peace between the two have seemed further away than ever • 2001, Ariel Sharon was elected as Israel’s Prime Minister • Former military leader; refused to negotiate with Palestinians until attacks on Israelis ceased • Relations between Arafat and Israeli leaders grew so strained that Israeli officials declared they no longer would with Arafat • Despite all of this, peace efforts continue • Due to world community pressure, Arafat agreed to take a less prominent role in peace talks with Israel • 2003, Palestinian leaders appointed their first-ever Prime Minister Mahmoud Abbas, who became the main negotiator on the Palestinian side • President Bush brought together Sharon and Abbas to begin working on a new peace plan known as the “road map”

GUIDING TAKE-AWAY *Division of Palestine after WWII made the Middle East a hotbed of competing nationalist movements. The conflict in the Middle East threatens the stability of the world today. *

CENTRAL ASIA Transcaucasian Republics, Central Asian Republics & Afghanistan

Introduction “How was I going to write about this shrouded land [the Soviet Union] – these cloaked people with souls hidden deep inside them? Where was I to go to discover their real selves? Were there even 'real selves’? Was it all in the propaganda and in the harsh statements that officials avidly fed me? Was I wrong always to grope underneath the psyches presented me? What were the clues-and how would I even recognize them when I found them? . . . [The Soviet Union] is a torment for the honest journalist, and the torment lasts long after one has closed the door on that isolated and strange land. " -Georgie Anne Geyer, Buying the Night Flight, 1985

Freedom Brings New Challenges • 1991, the Soviet Union collapses and the republics that it had conquered emerged as 15 independent nations • Geographers group these new nations into two geographic areas • Transcaucasian Republics • Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia • Lie in the Caucasus Mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas • Central Asian Republics • Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan • East of the Caspian Sea and extending into the Tian Shan and Pamir mountains

Freedom Brings New Challenges • Economic struggles • Since gaining independence, these nations have struggled economically and are today some of the poorest countries in the world • Stems from heavy reliance on the Soviet Union for economic help, thus making it difficult for them to stand on their own • Economic practices of the Soviet Union created additional problems • Soviets converted much of the available farmland in the Central Asian Republics to grow “white gold” aka cotton • Dependence on a single crop has hurt the development of a balanced economy in these nations • Some attempts • Azerbaijan has the best chance to build an economy based on income from oil and oil products • Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan are also working hard to tap their large reserves of oil and natural gas

Freedom Brings New Challenges • Ethnic and religious strife • Region is home to a number of different peoples, some with long histories of hostility toward one another • Soviets kept a lid on these hostilities and largely prevented any serious ethnic clashes due to their iron-rule…but once the Soviet Union collapses, those long-simmering ethnic rivalries erupted into fighting • Azerbaijan • Mostly Muslim country, but within it lies a small region of mainly Armenian Christians • In the wake of the Soviet Union collapse, these people declared their independence, but Azerbaijan had no interest in letting go of this land fighting quickly broke out • 1991 -1994 the war raged until a cease-fire was reached, but the status of that region remains unsolved to this day

Afghanistan & the World • Afghanistan has endured a long history of struggle • 1800 s, both Russia and Britain competed for control of its land • Russia wanted access to the Indian Ocean; Britain wanted control of the land in order to protect the northern borders of its Indian Empire • Britain fought three separate wars with the Afghanis before leaving in 1919 • 1919, Afghanistan declared itself an independent nation and established a monarchy • Government implanted various reforms and tried to modernize the country • 1964, devised a constitution that sought to establish a more democratic style of government • Officials couldn’t agree on a reform program and most people showed little interest in the effort to transform the government…so a democratic system didn’t really develop

Afghanistan & the World • Pushing back the Soviets • Afghanistan did grow stable enough to establish good relations with many Western European nations and hold its own on the world stage • When the Cold War broke out, Afghanistan chose to remain neutral; however, it received aid from both the U. S. and USSR • With Afghanistan being so close to the Soviet Union, they couldn’t hold out against the force of communism forever • 1973, military leaders overthrew the government • 1978, a rival group with strong ties to the USSR seized control of the country • Much of the population opposed the group believing that the Communist policies conflicted with Islamic teachings

Afghanistan & the World • Pushing back the Soviets • MUJAHIDEEN – holy warriors who banded together to fight the Soviet-supported government in the late 1970 s • The rebellion prompted the Soviet Union to step in • 1979 -1980, Soviet troops rolled into Afghanistan to conquer the country and add it to the USSR • With the Soviets’ superior military force and advanced weaponry, the war had all the makings of a quick affair • Afghan rebels used the land guerrilla tactics to their advantage • The U. S. provided financial and military assistance • After 10 years, the Soviet Union withdrew its troops

Afghanistan & the World • Rise & Fall of the Taliban • TALIBAN – conservative Islamic group that took control of Afghanistan after the Soviet Union withdrew its troops; driven from power by the U. S. in 2001 because of its harboring of suspecting terrorists • With the Soviet gone, rebel groups began battling each other for control; but 1998, the Taliban had controlled 90% of the country • Another rebel group, the Northern Alliance, held the northwest corner of the country • Initially people viewed the Taliban as a positive force as it brought order to the worn-torn nation, rooted out corruption and promoted growth of business

Afghanistan & the World • Rise & Fall of the Taliban • The Taliban followed an extreme interpretation of Islamic law and applied it to nearly every aspect of Afghan society • Women’s lives were restricted • • Couldn’t go to school or hold jobs Banned everything from TV and movies to modern music • Punishment included severe beating, amputations and even execution • More troubling was the Taliban’s role in the growing problem of world terrorism • Western leaders accused the Taliban of allowing terrorist groups to train in Afghanistan • Taliban also provided refuge for terrorist leaders including Osama bin Laden, whose al-Qaeda organization was believed to be responsible for several attacks on the West

Afghanistan & the World • Rise & Fall of the Taliban • In the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the U. S. government demanded that the Taliban turn over Osama bin Laden • Leaders refused and the U. S. took military action • October 2001, U. S. forces began bombing Taliban air defense airfields, and command centers as well as al-Qaeda training camps • On the ground, the U. S. provided assistance to anti-Taliban forces, such as the Northern Alliance • By December 2001, the U. S. had driven the Taliban from power

Afghanistan & the World • With the Taliban defeated, Afghan officials selected a new government under the leadership of Hamid Karzai • 2004, he was elected president and the government faced the enormous task of rebuilding a country that had endured more than 20 years of warfare • Not to mention, Afghanistan remains a country of roughly a dozen ethnic groups with distinct language and cultural patterns, all of which makes the job of creating a unified nation a difficult one

GUIDING TAKE-AWAY *Lands controlled or influenced by the Soviet Union struggle with the challenges of establishing new nations. The security issues in these nations pose a threat to world peace and security. *