The Cold War Conflict and Deadlock EISENHOWER Foreign

The Cold War Conflict and Deadlock

EISENHOWER

Foreign Intervention

Dulles & Foreign Policy § SOS = John Foster Dulles § He “saw the world as an arena in which the forces of good and evil were continuously at war. ” –British ambassador to US § A moralist and tactician, experienced, intelligent § Containment = defensive, contentment w/ status quo shift § US should promote LIBERATION of nations from Soviet domination § “New Look” military posture § Massive Retaliation = “more bang for the buck” § Nuclear weapons/air power in “limited-war” situations reduce conventional forces spend less $$ & put pressure on enemies

§ “balance of terror” replaces “balance of power” (Churchill § Policy of “brinkmanship” § ‘ 56 - to be tough & confront Communist threat, had to “go to the brink” of war § Examples§ ’ 53, Korea: US sends atomic weapon threat § ‘ 54, Indochina: US carriers into South China Sea- “both to deter any Red Chinese attack against [French] Indochina and to provide weapons for instant retaliation. ”

Indochina: The Background to War

Prelude § Nat’lism after WWII weakening/collapse of colonial empires § Early 50 s- GB, Dutch, French § US position? Support colonial nat’lists (Spirit of 1776) OR world powers that could aid in fight vs. communism § Truman aid to French/Dutch regain land lost by Japan to locals § French Indochina § WWII- opposition to Japanese led by Viet Minh (Vietnamese League for Independence) ü Nat’lists came under control of communist, rebel Ho Chi Minh ü Aid from US during war § End of war = control of N. Vietnam by Viet Minh, Democratic Republic of Vietnam (Hanoi)

§ ‘ 46 - French recognition of DRV as “free state” w/in colonial union § End of year- French to crush Vietnamese nat’lism § Opposition to French effort to establish regime in southern province First Indochina War § US involvement? § US disagree w/ restoration of French rule, but need France aid vs. communism § ‘ 48 - support to French to further “aims in Europe” more important than “realization of our objectives in Indochina. ” § Viet Minh movement dominated by Ho Chi Minh, Communists § Dependent on Soviet Union, China

§ ‘ 50 - Korea War Vietnam another battleground? § Truman- aid to French § ‘ 53 - truce in Korea increased aid to French under Ike ü 2/3 cost of French cost § ‘ 54 - French loss to Viet Minh @ Dien Bien Phu § Draw out guerillas in open, crush w/ superior weapons § OOPS…surrounded, besieged § French request US air strike in March US refused § April 7, ‘ 54 - Ike’s DOMINO THEORY § Opposition to direct involvement alone

§ May, ‘ 54 - Viet Minh attacks overwhelm French, defeats con. § July 20, 1954 - agreement on Geneva Accords Final Declaration § Viet Minh control N @ 17 th parallel, French control S ü Elections in ‘ 56 to unite Vietnam ü Neither US, nor South Vietnamese join in accord or sign FD § Laos, Cambodia neutral

§ US response? “Pactomania” (43 by ‘ 60) § Dulles organize mutual defense agreements for SE Asia § September ‘ 54 - US + 7 = Southeast Asia Treaty Org. (SEATO) ü Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan, GB, Fr, Australia, NZ, US § NOT another version of NATO ü Response by nations in accord to their “constitutional practices” ü In case of threat, subversion- would “consult immediately” ü Special protocol included converage to Indochina

§ Ike announcement on Vietnam, ’ 54 § US no part of decision @ Geneva, but Communist aggression “would be viewed by us as a matter of grave concern. ” ü US did agree NOT to use threat or force to disturb agreements put in place

§ HCM & gov. consolidate control in North § Kangaroo courts to seize land § Leave N w/ US aid (900 k refugees into South) problems for weak SV gov. § SV power to Ngo Dinh Diem (Catholic nat’list opposed to French & Viet Minh) § Ike offers assistance “in developing and maintaining a strong, viable state, capable of resisting attempted subversion or aggression through military means. ” § US expectation? Democratic reforms, land to peasants § US aid = CIA, military cadres to train

§ Diem tightened control by suppressing opposition; no land distribution; widespread corruption § ‘ 56 - refusal to participate in elections on reunification of Vietnam (US backed) § Communists use efforts to tighten control recruit SV who are discontented with Diem, gov. § ‘ 57 - SV guerrilla forces sympathetic to HCM, communism = Viet Cong § Attacks on Diem gov. § ’ 60 - resistance moves to political faction: National Liberation Front

Crisis in the Middle East

Stopping the Soviets § Eisenhower-Dulles foreign policy? § Arab friendship alliances by ’ 55 § GB, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan = Baghdad Pact aka Middle East Treaty Org. (METO) § Northern tier nations in METO vs. Arab League of Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, SA § Collapsed by ‘ 59 (Iraq withdrawal)

Egypt & Nasser § Egyptian general Gamal Adel Nasser to power in ’ 52 § Overthrow of King Farouk § Enter nat’list regime § Pressure for GB to withdraw forces guarding Suez Canal § = link b/t Med. And Indian Ocean (oil access) § Support of Nasser by US Anglo-Egyptian treaty, ‘ 54 ü GB withdrawal w/in 20 months, ownership with Anglo-French Suez Canal Co.

§ Nasser unaligned in CW § Why? Play both sides & win § US offer? Loan to build hydroelectric plant @ Aswan on Nile § Opposed by Jewish neighborhoods- worried about Egyptian threats to Israel § Also, southern congressmen (competition for cotton) § Nasser increases trade w/ Soviets, recognition of PRC = cancellation of loan in ’ 56 § Soviets sponsor, aid with weapons § Result? § Nasser can’t retaliate against US § Instead, focus on nationalizing Anglo-French Suez Canal Co.

§ During negotiation, invasion of Israeli forces in Gaza Strip, Sinai peninsula § Purpose? Root out guerillas, synchronize w/ GB & French in bombing of Egypt § GB/French “protecting the canal against the opposing belligerents” § = The Suez Canal War § US position to support Nasser § Options? § Support western allies, end of Nasser OR support UN charter, Arab nationalism vs. imperialist aggression § US + Soviets § End of conflict § US threaten with embargoes GB/Fr. /Israeli capitulation § Soviets then threated with missiles credit in Arab world

Repression in Hungary

Split in Geneva § Stalin dead in ‘ 53 Ike calling for slowdown in arms race § “atoms for peace” = plan to use nuclear power for benefit of all (energy) instead of destruction (weapons) § Soviet troops out of Austria, peaceful relationship w/ Greece, Turkey § 1955 - Summit meeting in Geneva § Ike & Soviet Premier Nikolai Bulganin § “Open skies” proposal = territory open to aerial photos by opposing nation to eliminate chance of surprise nuclear attack § Soviets REJECT § “Spirit of Geneva” = first thaw in Cold War § Despite rejection § ‘ 56 - speech by leader Nikita Krushchev on crimes of Stalin

Soviet Power & Response § Stalin death in ‘ 53 Nikita Khrushchev (‘ 53 -’ 64) “de-Stalinization” § AG expansion, decrease in military $$, censorship relaxes (at least you remained alive!), flashy gestures abroad (dams, stadiums) § Result? § Satellite nations- Stalinist leaders on defensive, independent leaders move to action

Hungary § October 23, ‘ 56 – fighting in Budapest Imre Nagy (moderate Comm. ) as head of gov. § Soviets OK with “de-Stalinization” and withdrew forces on Oct. 28 § Nagy announce withdrawal from Warsaw Pact tanks in Budapest § Krushchev NOT ok with E. satellites breaking w/ Soviet Union, abandoning mutual defense obligationss § Nagy Moscow, executed by firing squad in ‘ 58 § New leader installed (Janos Kadar)

SPUTNIK

The Soviets Reach Space § Oct. 4, ‘ 57 - Sputnik launched US awareness of “missile gap” § Most Americans fearful § Ike knew (U-2 spy planes) § US launch of Explorer I on Jan. 31, ‘ 58 § Soviet success “Sputnik syndrome” § Efforts to: § increase defense spending § intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) to NATO § development of long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) § agency for space efforts § science education

§ NASA- 1958 § R&D in space program § By end of year, program for putting man in space established ü May, 1961 - Commander Alan B. Shepard, Jr. § National Defense Education Act- 1958 § Federal grants for math, science, lang. , student loans, fellowships

More Problems Abroad

The Middle East- 1958 § Eisenhower Doctrine- promise to extend econ. , military aid to ME nations (also military force)to help aid against military aggression from Comm. Nations § Nasser creates United Arab Republic § Short-lived merger w/ Syria § Leftist coup in Iraq § Nasser + Soviet inspired end of pro-Western gov. § Lebanon asks for support against internal uprising § Ike send 5 k marines to Beirut & airfield stabilization, compromise withdrawal of US forces

§ 1960 - SA, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran + Venezuela = Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) § West becoming more dependent on ME oil § Other issues? § spreading Arab nationallism § conflict b/t Israel and Palestine

Berlin § Location problem § “a bone in my throat” -NK § West Berlin = “showplace” of democracy, prosperity w/in E. Germany § Listening post for W. intelligence, funnel for news/propaganda from west to penetrate the iron curtain § Refugees from E. to W. § Nov. 10, ‘ 58 - NK to give E. Germ. control of E. Berlin, airlines into West so US must recognize E. Germ. gov. or face blockade § Ike refuse to abandon Berlin, May deadline passed unnoticed § NK tour of US in ‘ 59 – also to Camp David “peaceful coexistence”

U-2 Summit § May 1, 1960 - Soviet rocket took down US U-2 plane § Back & forth Ike taking responsibility for plane being over Soviet Union & for incident- says action justified b/c of nat’l security § May 6 - Summit meeting @ Paris § NK want Ike to end U-2 flights (3 years) and punish those “responsible” § Ike’s refusal NK walking out

Castro’s Cuba § Castro in power Jan. 1, ’ 59 § 3 yrs of fighting vs. right-wing dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista § Many Americans hope for better future for Cuba ü TV reported trials/executions by Castro ü Trials have no legal procedure, no proof, in front of “howling crowds” § Opposition to foreign control of Cuban econ. § Land reforms, nat’lization of foreign-owned property § Many want to continue aid, loans US influence in direction of revolution § Castro accept Communist embrace § 1960 = trade agreement (sugar for oil/machinery) § Ike suspends diplomatic relations w/ Cuba, authorize CIA to train Cuban refugees for new revolution

Foreign Frontiers Under Kennedy

Foreign Progress § Peace Corps (‘ 61)- youth to bring tech. aid to developing nations § Third World= § Alliance for Progress (‘ 61)- land reform, econ. development in LA § Trade Expansion Act of ‘ 62 - tariff reductions w/ Euro. Econ. Community (W. Euro)

Early Setbacks § Bay of Pigs- 4/17/61 § Massive failure- invasion force taken down in 2 days, 1000+ men captured § The US “looked like fools to our friends, rascals to our enemies, and incompetents to the rest. ” -NYT § June- JFK + NIK in Vienna § Threats to limit access to Berlin, but JFK refused to remove troops § Berlin Wall erected by Soviets/GDR Aug. 13, 1961 ü - 1989 § US Reserves mobilized, tanks face off in city, BUT no move to stop wall § ‘ 63 - JFK to West Berlin for support § “Freedom has many difficulties and democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put up a wall to keep our people in. . . As a free man, I take pride in the words, ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’”

Cuban Missile Crisis § October 14, ’ 62 - US recon. planes find underground sites for launching missiles § NK grant Castro request for weapons vs. US invasion § Balance of US missiles in Turkey § JFK respond w/ “quarantine” on Oct. 22 § Why? Blockade = act of war § End when weapons removed § Fear of Soviet ships challenging blockade nuclear war § Oct. 28 - negotiation reached (SOS Dean Rusk) § Soviets withdraw missiles for US public statement not to invade Cuba

§ Also, invitation by NK to “continue the exchange of views on the prohibition of atomic and thermonuclear weapons, general disarmament, and other problems relating to the relaxation of international tension. ” § US sell surplus wheat to Soviets § “hot line” between Washington & Moscow § Removal of old US missiles from Turkey § US + USSR + GB +. . . = Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (‘ 63) § Stop pollution of atmosphere by nuclear testing § No restriction to underground testing § “A journey of a thousand miles begins with one step. ” –Confucious

Kennedy and Vietnam

Growing Conflict § Policy? § Flexible response- NOT massive retaliation/nukes § Increase $$ to conventional arms, mobile military forces, special forces § Laos neutral/independent by ‘ 54 Geneva Accords § Power struggle b/t Communist Pathet Lao insurgents (Soviet backed) vs. Royal Laotian Army § Options? § “You might have to go in there and fight. ” = direct intervention § Decision to back formation of neutral coalition gov. – May ‘ 61 § Would include reps from Pathet Lao § no military intervention, no Pathet Law victory = WIN

Meanwhile, back in N. Vietnam. . . § HCM Trail open through E. Laos to supply Viet Cong § South Vietnam struggles § Ngo Dinh Diem repressive tactics to retain control , no democracy, no social/political reform, action vs. Buddhists, Communists § 1961 - US sends emissaries to Saigon § Walt Rostow, Gen. Maxwell Taylor § Proposition? Increase in US military presence § JFK refused, sends more advisers ü 1961 - JFK into office, 2 k US troops ü 1963 - 16 k troops, none committed to battle

§ Worst enemy? Diem regime by mid-’ 63 § Public discontent w/ regime visible- Buddhist monk demonstrations in streets vs. “iron-fisted rule” of Diem § Fall ‘ 63 - Diem = “lost cause” § SV generals launch coup d’etat on Nov. 1 & seize gov. , murder Diem § successive coups by military leaders

LYNDON B. JOHNSON

The Tragedy of Vietnam

Escalating Issues § Not a major issue in ‘ 60 election- US involvement minimal § Under JFK § Adopted Domino Theory, aid to SV (also, advisers), training of troops, guarding of weapons/facilities, “strategic hamlets” (fortified villages) § ‘ 63 = 16 k troops- role was SUPPORT, NOT COMBAT

LBJ & the Tonkin Gulf Resolution § Reason for “escalation” § Aug. 7, ‘ 64 - 2 US destroyers attacked by DRV on Aug. 2 & 4 in Gulf of Tonkin § Provoked? § Resolution Pres. authorization “to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression. ” § Decision time- Feb. 5, 1965 = “Americanization” of the war § Viet Cong guerillas kill 8/wound 126 Americans, more attacks later in week § Order of Operation Thunder to stop soldiers/supplies from getting to south § August- task force reports bombing unsuccessful, but attacks continue

§ March, ‘ 65 - Gen. William Westmoreland request/gets first group of combat troops to defend US airfields § End of ‘ 65 - 184 k troops, ‘ 66 - 385 k § Combat operations increase in SV casualties increase § Announced on news (“body count”) § “Westy’s War” = helicopters, gunships, chemicals, napalm § war of attrition § No declaration of war by Congress, but full-scale use of US forces § Congress gave Pres. Authority to use troops, never recalled § Support through ’ 68

Policy § LBJ decision consistent w/ other US presidents since WWII § Containment- Truman Doctrine endorsed by Ike, Dulles, JFK § US pledged to oppose advance of communism anywhere in world § “Why are we in Vietnam? We are there because we have a promise to keep. . . To leave Vietnam to its fate would shake the confidence of all these people in the value of American commitment. ” –LBJ § SOS Rusk promotes domino theory as reason to stay involved § Military intervention logical

§ LBJ know not to let military involvement get to levels to provoke China or Soviets LBJ control over bombing, restrictive policy of leadership § Sign that victory not possible § US goal not victory by capturing territory § Goal to prevent North Vietnamese/Viet Cong from winning, hope to force settlement § Problem? § US support faded faster than North Vietnamese toleration of casualties § US fighting limited war for limited objectives § N. Vietnamese fighting total war for survival

Opposition § Opposition on college campuses in ’ 65 (year of escalation) § Investigation into US policy in Vietnam by Senate FR Committee § Led by Sen. J. William Fulbright (AR) § Kennan felt policy OK for Europe, NOT for SE Asia § Anti-war demonstrations in NY, @ Pentagon in ‘ 67 § Vietnam 1 st war with extended TV coverage = “living room war” § “The picture of the world’s greatest superpower killing or injuring 1, 000 noncombatants a week while trying to pound a tiny backward nation into submission on an issue whose merits are hotly disputed, is not a pretty one. “ – Robert Mc. Namara

Misinformation § Misinformation from military/civilian leaders + LBJ avoiding true cost/scope of war “credibility gap” § Also w/in gov. , understanding of enemy or nature of war also slowed § Early ‘ 68 - US forces on verge of gaining upper hand vs. Communists display of cunning/tenacity against US § Tet Offensive § LBJ’s hope? Increase military pressure DRV would come to peace table

Hawks vs. Doves § Hawks = war supporters § Soviets influence over NV Communists vs. SV, plan to take over SE Asia § Doves = anti-war § Civil War- no place for US § High cost of life, $$ § College students- draft issue

The Turning Point § Jan. 31, ’ 68 = start of TET Offensive § Tet – 1 st day of New Year § Holiday truce waved, wave of surprise attacks by NV & VC § Attacks in SV occupation of US embassy in Saigon for several days § Counterattack by US/SV massive casualties of NV/VC § 200 k more troops § Effect? Psychological § Contradiction to upbeat claims by US commanders about ground war § increase anti-war/withdrawal campaigns § LBJ popularity down to 35% § $322 k/soldier, $53/person in poverty

LBJ § ‘ 68 - turns to isolation § Depression, paranoia § Reports that victory not viable prospect § Undermining Great Society programs § Dem. Party fragmenting § Bobby Kennedy for President? An option vs. LBJ § Sen. Eugene Mc. Carthy (MN)- student vote, anti-war (42% in NH)

§ March 31 - limited halt to bombing, new attempt @ negotiations § END to quest for victory § Now? How to extricate with minimal damage to prestige § Paris- May, ’ 68: discussions w/ NV end when demand final end to US bombing § BUT- end to “escalation”- no more troops § PS. . . § “I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President. ”

NIXON

Nixon and Vietnam § 50%+ of US troops in Vietnam § Nixon + Henry Kissinger (Nat’l Security Adv. ) = new plan for “peace with honor” § 3 areas of focus: § Paris peace talks: US demand NV withdrawal, recognition of US backed SV gov. deadlock secret meetings b/t Kissinger & NV § Defuse domestic unrest Via “Vietnamization”- turn combat missions over to SV units, reduce US ground forces, $/weapons/training to SV (‘ 69 - 560 k, ‘ 73 - 50 k) § Expansion of air war effort Pressure NV to come to terms March 18, ‘ 69 - Operation Menu- 14 months of bombing Cambodia SECRET- not known by Congress until ‘ 70

Division at Home § Slow withdrawal of military low morale, reputation of troops § “No one wants to be the last grunt to die in this lousy war. ” § “fragging” = troops vs. officers (fragmentation grenades) § Drug abuse- 4 x more hospitalized for overdose than combat wounds (’ 71) § Leaked reports of atrocities § My Lai, Pentagon Papers

Antiwar Opposition § By ‘ 70 - Reaction to Nixon’s war effort § My Lai massacre, ‘ 68 (Army Lt. William Calley, 200 Vietnamese civilians) § College wide protests , violence/shooting (Kent State- 4 dead, Jackson State- 2 dead) § Pressure from activists, escalation in reaction repeal of Gulf of Tonkin Resolution § 1971 - US learn about slaughter of women/children by US in Vietnam (‘ 68), antiwar sentiment from NYT, revelation of “Pentagon papers” with history of mistakes/deceptions of gov. in dealing w/ Vietnam (released by Daniel Ellsbert, DOD) § ‘ 64 on- plans for expansion of war effort, US entry (LBJ)

From War to Peace. . . Talks § Tactical success in Cambodia § SV troops struggle to replace US forces (defeats ‘ 71 -’ 72, disorganized, poorly led) reliance on US air power § By ‘ 72 - Kissinger (SOS, ‘ 73) + NV foreign minister on cease-fire § Agreement drops removal of ALL NV troops from SV § Summer ‘ 72 - peace at hand. . . but SV won’t compromise § B-52 bombing of NV for several weeks = “Christmas bombings & jugular diplomacy”

Paris Accords- Jan. 27, ‘ 73 § NV agreement to armistice § NV retain request for: 150 k troops in S, idea of unified Vietnam ü Fighting between NV/SV continues ü By April 30, ‘ 75 - Communist forces take Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City) § Shift from ‘ 72 was SV acceptance of terms ü Why? US promise to respond “with full force” if violation of agreement § US withdraw remaining troops, receive 500+ POWs, § Cease-fire, free elections

Legacy § March 29, ‘ 73 = last US combat troops leave Vietnam ü MIA in thousands ü $150 b. spent on war, 58 k US death § Democracy not easily transferred to third-world nations § No history of liberal values, no rep. gov. § Lack of respect for military service § Division among American society § Reaction? noninterventionist foreign policy

Détente w/ China & USSR § Nixon + Kissinger play off rivalry b/t China, USSR § Diplomacy = détente call for reduction of Cold War tensions § Relax, ease tension § Visit to China § BOLD effort to improve relations w/ Mao, PRC § Feb. , ‘ 72 - travel to Beijing diplomatic exchanges US recognize PRC ‘ 79

§ Arms control w/ Soviets § Pressure USSR to limit antiballistic missile testing (ABMs) no renewal or expansion of arms race § Hold Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I)- agreement to “freeze” number of ballistic missiles w/ nuclear warheads § No end to arms race, step toward reducing tension, toward détente

CARTER

Foreign Policy § HUMAN RIGHTS § Andrew Young = US ambassador to UN § Denounced oppression of blacks in South Africa, Zimbabwe § In LA- human rights violations end of US aid to Argentina, Chile § Panama Canal- attempt to correct inequitites § New treaty negotiated in ‘ 78 - transfer of operation and control from US to Panama (by 2000) § A “give away” by opponents § Camp David Accords, 1978 § Peace settlement b/t Egypt and Israel § Invite to Egyptian President Anwar Sadat & Israeli PM Menachem Begin § framework for peace, Egyptian recognition of Israel, Israel removal of troops

Iran Hostage Crisis § ‘ 79 - Islamic fundamentalists (Ayatollah Kohmeini) take over shah’s dictatorship in Iran § Shah- oil to West in 70 s, autocratic rule, “westernization” § New regime stop oil production 2 nd worldwide oil crisis § Nov. – militants seize US embassy in Teheran (50+ hostages) § Hostage crisis through 1980 § April, ‘ 80 = failed attempt @ rescue mission (helicopters down in Iranian desert)

Cold War § Carter attempt to continue Nixon-Ford policy of détente § ‘ 79 - US ended recognition of Nat’list Chinese gov. of Taiwan § Ambassadors to PRC § Signing of SALT II treaty- limit size of nuclear delivery system § Treaty not ratified by Senate due to tension in Afghanistan § Dec. ‘ 79 - Soviets invade Afghanistan = end to 10 yrs of improving relationship b/t US and Soviets § US react by embargo on grain to USSR, sale of tech and boycotting 1980 Olympics in Moscow