The Cold War Conflict and Deadlock EISENHOWER Dulles

The Cold War Conflict and Deadlock

EISENHOWER

Dulles & Foreign Policy § SOS = John Foster Dulles § He “saw the world as an arena in which the forces of good and evil were continuously at war. ” –British ambassador to US § A moralist and tactician, experienced, intelligent § Containment = defensive, contentment w/ status quo shift § US should promote LIBERATION of nations from Soviet domination § “New Look” military posture § Massive Retaliation = “more bang for the buck” § Nuclear weapons/air power in “limited-war” situations reduce conventional forces spend less $$ & put pressure on enemies

§ “balance of terror” replaces “balance of power” (Churchill § Policy of “brinkmanship” § ‘ 56 - to be tough & confront Communist threat, had to “go to the brink” of war § Examples§ ’ 53, Korea: US sends atomic weapon threat § ‘ 54, Indochina: US carriers into South China Sea- “both to deter any Red Chinese attack against [French] Indochina and to provide weapons for instant retaliation. ”

Indochina: The Background to War

Prelude § Nat’lism after WWII weakening/collapse of colonial empires § Early 50 s- GB, Dutch, French § US position? Support colonial nat’lists (Spirit of 1776) OR world powers that could aid in fight vs. communism § Truman aid to French/Dutch regain land lost by Japan to locals § French Indochina § WWII- opposition to Japanese led by Viet Minh (Vietnamese League for Independence) ü Nat’lists came under control of communist, rebel Ho Chi Minh ü Aid from US during war § End of war = control of N. Vietnam by Viet Minh, Democratic Republic of Vietnam (Hanoi)

§ ‘ 46 - French recognition of DRV as “free state” w/in colonial union § End of year- French to crush Vietnamese nat’lism § Opposition to French effort to establish regime in southern province First Indochina War § US involvement? § US disagree w/ restoration of French rule, but need France aid vs. communism § ‘ 48 - support to French to further “aims in Europe” more important than “realization of our objectives in Indochina. ” § Viet Minh movement dominated by Ho Chi Minh, Communists § Dependent on Soviet Union, China

§ ‘ 50 - Korea War Vietnam another battleground? § Truman- aid to French § ‘ 53 - truce in Korea increased aid to French under Ike ü 2/3 cost of French cost § ‘ 54 - French loss to Viet Minh @ Dien Bien Phu § Draw out guerillas in open, crush w/ superior weapons § OOPS…surrounded, besieged § French request US air strike in March US refused § April 7, ‘ 54 - Ike’s DOMINO THEORY § Opposition to direct involvement alone

§ May, ‘ 54 - Viet Minh attacks overwhelm French, defeats con. § July 20, 1954 - agreement on Geneva Accords Final Declaration § Viet Minh control N @ 17 th parallel, French control S ü Elections in ‘ 56 to unite Vietnam ü Neither US, nor South Vietnamese join in accord or sign FD § Laos, Cambodia neutral

§ US response? “Pactomania” (43 by ‘ 60) § Dulles organize mutual defense agreements for SE Asia § September ‘ 54 - US + 7 = Southeast Asia Treaty Org. (SEATO) ü Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan, GB, Fr, Australia, NZ, US § NOT another version of NATO ü Response by nations in accord to their “constitutional practices” ü In case of threat, subversion- would “consult immediately” ü Special protocol included converage to Indochina

§ Ike announcement on Vietnam, ’ 54 § US no part of decision @ Geneva, but Communist aggression “would be viewed by us as a matter of grave concern. ” ü US did agree NOT to use threat or force to disturb agreements put in place

§ HCM & gov. consolidate control in North § Kangaroo courts to seize land § Leave N w/ US aid (900 k refugees into South) problems for weak SV gov. § SV power to Ngo Dinh Diem (Catholic nat’list opposed to French & Viet Minh) § Ike offers assistance “in developing and maintaining a strong, viable state, capable of resisting attempted subversion or aggression through military means. ” § US expectation? Democratic reforms, land to peasants § US aid = CIA, military cadres to train

§ Diem tightened control by suppressing opposition; no land distribution; widespread corruption § ‘ 56 - refusal to participate in elections on reunification of Vietnam (US backed) § Communists use efforts to tighten control recruit SV who are discontented with Diem, gov. § ‘ 57 - SV guerrilla forces sympathetic to HCM, communism = Viet Cong § Attacks on Diem gov. § ’ 60 - resistance moves to political faction: National Liberation Front

Kennedy and Vietnam

Growing Conflict § Policy? § Flexible response- NOT massive retaliation/nukes § Increase $$ to conventional arms, mobile military forces, special forces § Laos neutral/independent by ‘ 54 Geneva Accords § Power struggle b/t Communist Pathet Lao insurgents (Soviet backed) vs. Royal Laotian Army § Options? § “You might have to go in there and fight. ” = direct intervention § Decision to back formation of neutral coalition gov. – May ‘ 61 § Would include reps from Pathet Lao § No military intervention + No Pathet Law victory = WIN

Meanwhile, back in N. Vietnam. . . § HCM Trail open through E. Laos to supply Viet Cong § South Vietnam struggles § Ngo Dinh Diem repressive tactics to retain control , no democracy, no social/political reform, action vs. Buddhists, Communists § 1961 - US sends emissaries to Saigon § Walt Rostow, Gen. Maxwell Taylor § Proposition? Increase in US military presence § JFK refused, sends more advisers ü 1961 - JFK into office, 2 k US troops ü 1963 - 16 -17 k troops, none committed to battle

§ Worst enemy? Diem regime by mid-’ 63 § Public discontent w/ regime visible- Buddhist monk demonstrations in streets vs. “iron-fisted rule” of Diem § Fall ‘ 63 - Diem = “lost cause” § SV generals launch coup d’etat on Nov. 1 & seize gov. , murder Diem § successive coups by military leaders

The Tragedy of Vietnam

Escalating Issues § Not a major issue in ‘ 60 election- US involvement minimal § Under JFK § Adopted Domino Theory, aid to SV (also, advisers), training of troops, guarding of weapons/facilities, “strategic hamlets” (fortified villages) § ‘ 63 = 16 -17 k troops- role was SUPPORT, NOT COMBAT

LBJ & the Tonkin Gulf Resolution § Reason for “escalation” § Aug. 7, ‘ 64 - 2 US destroyers attacked by DRV on Aug. 2 & 4 in Gulf of Tonkin § Provoked? § Resolution Pres. authorization “to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression. ” § Decision time- Feb. 5, 1965 = “Americanization” of the war § Viet Cong guerillas kill 8/wound 126 Americans, more attacks later in week § Order of Operation Thunder to stop soldiers/supplies from getting to south § August- task force reports bombing unsuccessful, but attacks continue

§ March, ‘ 65 - Gen. William Westmoreland request/gets first group of combat troops to defend US airfields § End of ‘ 65 - 184 k troops, ‘ 66 - 385 k § Combat operations increase in SV casualties increase § Announced on news (“body count”) § “Westy’s War” = helicopters, gunships, chemicals, napalm § war of attrition § No declaration of war by Congress, but full-scale use of US forces § Congress gave Pres. Authority to use troops, never recalled § Support through ’ 68

Policy § LBJ decision consistent w/ other US presidents since WWII § Containment- Truman Doctrine endorsed by Ike, Dulles, JFK § US pledged to oppose advance of communism anywhere in world § “Why are we in Vietnam? We are there because we have a promise to keep. . . To leave Vietnam to its fate would shake the confidence of all these people in the value of American commitment. ” –LBJ § SOS Rusk promotes domino theory as reason to stay involved § Military intervention logical

§ LBJ know not to let military involvement get to levels to provoke China or Soviets LBJ control over bombing, restrictive policy of leadership § Sign that victory not possible § US goal not victory by capturing territory § Goal to prevent North Vietnamese/Viet Cong from winning, hope to force settlement § Problem? § US support faded faster than North Vietnamese toleration of casualties § US fighting limited war for limited objectives § N. Vietnamese fighting total war for survival

Opposition § Opposition on college campuses in ’ 65 (year of escalation) § Investigation into US policy in Vietnam by Senate FR Committee § Led by Sen. J. William Fulbright (AR) § Kennan felt policy OK for Europe, NOT for SE Asia § Anti-war demonstrations in NY, @ Pentagon in ‘ 67 § Vietnam 1 st war with extended TV coverage = “living room war” § “The picture of the world’s greatest superpower killing or injuring 1, 000 noncombatants a week while trying to pound a tiny backward nation into submission on an issue whose merits are hotly disputed, is not a pretty one. “ – Robert Mc. Namara

Misinformation § Misinformation from military/civilian leaders + LBJ avoiding true cost/scope of war “credibility gap” § Also w/in gov. , understanding of enemy or nature of war also slowed § Early ‘ 68 - US forces on verge of gaining upper hand vs. Communists display of cunning/tenacity against US § Tet Offensive § LBJ’s hope? Increase military pressure DRV would come to peace table

Hawks vs. Doves § Hawks = war supporters § Soviets influence over NV Communists vs. SV, plan to take over SE Asia § Doves = anti-war § Civil War- no place for US § High cost of life, $$ § College students- draft issue

The Turning Point § Jan. 31, ’ 68 = start of TET Offensive § Tet – 1 st day of New Year § Holiday truce waved, wave of surprise attacks by NV & VC § Attacks in SV occupation of US embassy in Saigon for several days § Counterattack by US/SV massive casualties of NV/VC § 200 k more troops § Effect? Psychological § Contradiction to upbeat claims by US commanders about ground war § increase anti-war/withdrawal campaigns § LBJ popularity down to 35% § $322 k/soldier, $53/person in poverty

LBJ § ‘ 68 - turns to isolation § Depression, paranoia § Reports that victory not viable prospect § Undermining Great Society programs § Dem. Party fragmenting § Bobby Kennedy for President? An option vs. LBJ § Sen. Eugene Mc. Carthy (MN)- student vote, anti-war (42% in NH)

§ March 31 - limited halt to bombing, new attempt @ negotiations § END to quest for victory § Now? How to extricate with minimal damage to prestige § Paris- May, ’ 68: discussions w/ NV end when demand final end to US bombing § BUT- end to “escalation”- no more troops § PS. . . § “I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President. ”

NIXON

Nixon and Vietnam § 50%+ of US troops in Vietnam § Nixon + Henry Kissinger (Nat’l Security Adv. ) = new plan for “peace with honor” § 3 areas of focus: § Paris peace talks: US demand NV withdrawal, recognition of US backed SV gov. deadlock secret meetings b/t Kissinger & NV § Defuse domestic unrest Via “Vietnamization”- turn combat missions over to SV units, reduce US ground forces, $/weapons/training to SV (‘ 69 - 560 k, ‘ 73 - 50 k) § Expansion of air war effort Pressure NV to come to terms March 18, ‘ 69 - Operation Menu- 14 months of bombing Cambodia SECRET- not known by Congress until ‘ 70

Division at Home § Slow withdrawal of military low morale, reputation of troops § “No one wants to be the last grunt to die in this lousy war. ” § “fragging” = troops vs. officers (fragmentation grenades) § Drug abuse- 4 x more hospitalized for overdose than combat wounds (’ 71) § Leaked reports of atrocities § My Lai, Pentagon Papers

Antiwar Opposition § By ‘ 70 - Reaction to Nixon’s war effort § My Lai massacre, ‘ 68 (Army Lt. William Calley, 200 Vietnamese civilians) § College wide protests , violence/shooting (Kent State- 4 dead, Jackson State- 2 dead) § Pressure from activists, escalation in reaction repeal of Gulf of Tonkin Resolution § 1971 - US learn about slaughter of women/children by US in Vietnam (‘ 68), antiwar sentiment from NYT, revelation of “Pentagon papers” with history of mistakes/deceptions of gov. in dealing w/ Vietnam (released by Daniel Ellsbert, DOD) § ‘ 64 on- plans for expansion of war effort, US entry (LBJ)

From War to Peace. . . Talks § Tactical success in Cambodia § SV troops struggle to replace US forces (defeats ‘ 71 -’ 72, disorganized, poorly led) reliance on US air power § By ‘ 72 - Kissinger (SOS, ‘ 73) + NV foreign minister on cease-fire § Agreement drops removal of ALL NV troops from SV § Summer ‘ 72 - peace at hand. . . but SV won’t compromise § B-52 bombing of NV for several weeks = “Christmas bombings & jugular diplomacy”

Paris Accords- Jan. 27, ‘ 73 § NV agreement to armistice § NV retain request for: 150 k troops in S, idea of unified Vietnam ü Fighting between NV/SV continues ü By April 30, ‘ 75 - Communist forces take Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City) § Shift from ‘ 72 was SV acceptance of terms ü Why? US promise to respond “with full force” if violation of agreement § US withdraw remaining troops, receive 500+ POWs, § Cease-fire, free elections

Legacy § March 29, ‘ 73 = last US combat troops leave Vietnam ü MIA in thousands ü $150 b. spent on war, 58 k US death § Democracy not easily transferred to third-world nations § No history of liberal values, no rep. gov. § Lack of respect for military service § Division among American society § Reaction? noninterventionist foreign policy