The Cognitive Perspective 12142021 Cognitive Perspective 1 The

The Cognitive Perspective 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 1

The “Information Processing Approach” What is it? • Psychological Theory concerned with explaining human behavior by the studying the how the mind processes information. Specifically, how the brain selects, processes, organizes, stores, and uses data. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 2

Key Topics – Key Assumptions – Key Historical and Cultural Influences • Reaction to Behaviorism • Computer Model – Key Research Methods • Laboratory Experiments • Case Studies – Key Topics • Information Processing • Memory and Theories of Memory • Forgetting • Applications of Memory – Key Studies • Craik and Tulving (1975) • Myers and Brewin (1994) • Aggleton and Waskett (1999) – Evaluation: Strengths and Weaknesses 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 3

Key Questions • • • How does the cognitive perspective differ from other perspectives? How is it similar? What is the difference between sensory, short term, and long term memories? What are two of the main theories which explain how memory works? What is autobiographical memory? For what reasons do we forget? Why is the tendency for reconstructive memories something law enforcement officials might want to be aware of? What are schemas and how are they important? How can knowledge about memory be applied to issues in the modern world? What types of research methods are generally used by cognitive psychologists? What are the strengths and weaknesses of this perspective? 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 4

Key Concepts • • • • • • Memory Coding Storage Retrieval Multi-Store Theory Sensory Memory Short Term Memory Long Term Memory Procedural Memories Declarative Memories Semantic Memory Episodic Memories Levels of Processing Theory Structural Processing Phonetic Processing Semantic Processing Deep Processing Serial Position Effect Primacy Effect Recency Effect Autobiographical Memory 12/14/2021 • • • • • Forgetting Anterograde Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia Availability Accessibility Trace Decay Encoding Failure Interference Repression Cue-dependent forgetting Encoding specificity principle Context dependent recall State dependent recall Leading Questions Bias Confirmation Bias Stereotypes False Memory Syndrome Mnemonics Cognitive Perspective 5

Historical and Cultural Influences • Reaction to behavioral perspective focus on external rather than internal processes. • Reaction to lack of Scientific Controls of Psychodynamic Perspective. • Computer Model – Invention of computer gave scientists a model to compare the mind to 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 6

Key Assumptions of the Perspective: • The way to understand, explain, predict, control, measure and describe human behavior is to study the cognitive mechanisms of the body. • Both humans and computers process information – so there may be some similarities • Research should be highly scientific and controlled. • In order to understand human behavior, inner mental processes such as thoughts, beliefs, and cognitive structures must be studied. • These inner mental processes change over time in ways which can have profound effects on behavior. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 7

MEMORY and FORGETTING 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 8

1. 2. Three Processes of Memory Two Theories of how memory works. A. Multistore Model 1) 2) B. Levels of Processing Approach 1) 2) 3. 4. Failure of Availability Failure of Accessibilty Two more memory theories: A. B. 7. Structural, Phonetic, Semantic Amnesia Autobiographical Memories Forgetting A. B. 6. Sensory, Short Term, and Long Term memory Serial Effect Reconstructive Memory Theory Schema Theory Factors which can influence memory 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 9

1. The 3 Processes of Memory 1. Coding – how information is labeled as it enters the mind. Different types of coding: a. Acoustic – sounds of words b. Semantic – meaning of words - usually associated with LTM 2. Storage – how much or for how long information is stored. a. The capacity of LTM is possibly unlimited b. Miller (1956) suggested STM usually holds about 7 “chunks” of info on average. c. The better we organize data into chunks, generally the more we can put into short term memory 3. Retrieval – taking information from storage so that it can be used - all of the problems associated with finding and retrieving it. a. STM retrieval is generally rapid or not at all b. LTM retrieval is generally a longer process than STM c. LTM depends on finding specific retrieval cues to be successful. There is a possibility we never forget anything! 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 10

2. Theories of Memory Psychologists have not been able to “prove” how memory works exactly, but two of the main theories are: A. Multi-store Model B. Levels of Processing Approach 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 11

A. Multi-store Model of Memory What is it? • Theory by Atkins and Shiffrin (1968) • Based upon theoretical existence of a sensory, short term, and long term memory processes. • They believed that information flows 1) briefly through sensory, then into 2) short term, and/or 3) long term memory structures. Findings: • If STM memories are not rehearsed, they are lost. In other words, whether information is stored in STM or LTM depends on how much it is processed by the mind. • Each structure has different durations and capacities • Duration and capacity is fixed in each structure: Once the memory capacity or specific duration of time is reached, memory is lost. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 12

The 3 Structures of Memory in the Multi-store Theory 1. Sensory Memory (SM) Any auditory or visual stimulus remains unaltered in the mind for a brief time, but is rapidly lost through decay. 2. Short Term Memory (STM) Memories which are learned quickly, but quickly forgotten; generally in seconds or minutes. 3. Long Term Memory (LTM) Memories which last for several minutes, hours, days, years, or lifetimes. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 13

Support for the Existence of STM and LTM Research on: The “Serial Position Effect” and Patients with “Anterograde Amnesia. ” 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 14

Studies on the Serial Position Effect What is it? • The Serial Position Effect describes the fact that in tests of free recall, people tend to remember the first and last bits of information more readily than information presented in the middle. • The Multi-store theory is able to explain the “Serial Position Effect. ” Specifically: • The Primacy Effect – the tendency to remember the first information we are presented because such information is generally transferred into LTM. • The Recency Effect – the tendency to remember the most recent information we are presented 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 15

Explanation: • FIRST: The first information brought into “empty” STM memory has more time to be rehearsed, and is more likely to transfer into LTM. (Primacy Effect) • MIDDLE: Further information brought into memory has less time for rehearsal brought into an STM which may already be full. • LAST: Last information brought in tends to “displace” or push out the middle information. Also, since this info is the most recent, it is also easier to remember. (Recency Effect) 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 16

Studies of Anterograde Amnesia What is it? • Disorder in which a person cannot place information into LTM. • Experiences of world last only as long as STM does. • Can often learn new procedural skills (such as learning to play a game), but cannot make new declarative, semantic, or episodic memories. • (Baddeley and Warrington, 1970) - In free recall experiments, these people show good recency effects, but poor primacy effects Why does it happen? • Generally results from brain damage or illness affecting the Hippocampus. • (Milner et al, 1978) Damage to hippocampus appears to stop the transference of information between STM and LTM • Patients often remember most of LTM before accident or illness. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 17

Evaluation of The Multi-store Model Strengths • Still widely used by psychologists • Provides support for Serial Position Effect and Anterograde Amnesia Weaknesses • Original theory was too simplisitc. Now thought to be different types of both STM and LTM. • Ignores the importance of the type of information that is brought in, and the effort or strategy subjects use when learning. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 18

B. “Levels of Processing” Theory of Memory What is it? • Theory by Craik and Lockhart (1972) • Accepts the existence of STM and LTM • However, suggests that it is what the person does with information when it is received (how much attention is paid to it or how deeply it is considered, that determines how long the memory lasts. • Info is more readily transferred to LTM with more “depth of processing” What are the 3 Levels of Processing? 1. Structural Level – paying attention to what the words look like. (superficial) 2. Phonetic Level – processing the sound of the words. (deeper processing) 3. Semantic Level - considering the meaning of words (the deepest processing). 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 19

More Characteristics of “Deep Processing” Further research in this area led to the identity more specific characteristics of Deep Processing: 1. Elaboration (Craik and Tulving 1975) Better cued recall for info which is well elaborated rather than simple elaboration 2. Distinctiveness (Eysenck and Eysenck 1980) Better recall when info is distinctive or unusual 3. Effort (Tyler et al, 1979) More effort which has to be put forth, better recall 4. Personal Relevance (Rogers et al 1977) Higher recall for information made relevant to learner. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 20

Key Research: Craik and Tulving (1975) Aim Method Results Conclusion 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 21

LOP can help explain: 1. 2. Why participants in a study by Morris (1981) who were enthusiastic football fans tend to remember scores of games presented to them more accurately than non-football fans. Why participants in a study by Bower and Karlin (1974) remembered pictures of people more accurately when they had to judge how honest or likable than if participants were asked to identify whether the people in the pictures were male or female. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 22

Evaluation of LOP Theory Strengths • Good contribution to understanding the processes that take place at the time of learning • Provides and alternative explanation of anterograde Amnesia (shallow processing) • Recognizes a wide variety of memories as a result of a wide variety of ways information is dealt with. Weaknesses • Not meant to fully explain memory, but to aid in research. • Circular definition: well remembered material which has been deeply processed and deeply processed material is that which is well remembered. • Many problems with defining deep processing and why it is effective • It describes rather than explains. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 23

Types of LTM • Declarative Memories memories which we can easily tell other people about (ones which we can declare. ) i. e. Your name, your mother’s name, etc • Procedural Memories of how to do things. Generally procedural memories are easier to do than to say. Often difficult to remember how we came to know these types of memories. i. e. Kicking a soccer ball accurately • Episodic Memories of things you have done or which have happened to you. i. e. Your first kiss. • Semantic Memories of concepts, meanings, rules, and general knowledge of the world. i. e. Knowing how to introduce a friend Knowing what it means to be “rude” 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 24

3. Autobiographical Memories What are they? Memories from people’s own lives – our personal memory. Factors influencing what is remembered: 1. How personally relevant an event is: The more important it is to us, the more likely we will remember 2. How Surprising or Emotional a event is: the more suprising or emotional, the more likely we remember 3. How much time has passed since the event occurred: The more time passed, the more distortions which are likely 4. How much is remembered: generally, the less people can remember about an event, the older the memory is perceived to be. 5. How repetitive or unique an event is: Unique events stand out “while repetitive ones tend to blend togther into an indistinguishable lump. ” 6. Cue dependency - Forgetting of autobiographical memories appears to be cue dependent. The reason we don’t remember is because we probably don’t have the right cues. Weakness: Research on Autobiographical memories has largely been gained through non-laboratory methods. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 25

4. Forgetting “Forgetting” assumes that something was once stored in STM or LTM, and now either has: A. Disappeared (failure of availability) or B. It is there but it can’t be brought to mind (failure of accessibility). Forgetting is a natural process, but is it necessary? 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 26

A. Failure of Availability 1. Trace Decay Forgetting caused by the natural “decay” of neural pathways which have been “excited” by incoming information. 2. Encoding Failure when information is not encoded well enough to be moved from STM to LTM. Ex: forgetting someone’s name who you just meet. If you don’t rehearse it, you forget. 3 Interference – forgetting due to prior or subsequent learning. One set of information competes with another causing it to be “overwritten” or physically lost. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 27

B. 1. Failure of Accessibility Cue-dependent Forgetting – forgetting which comes from the lack of an effective retrieval cue. Information is available, but is temporarily inaccessible. Led to several specific concepts: a. Encoding specificity Principle Tulving (1983) proposed that information committed to memory is encoded with specific information from the context in which it was learned. Therefore, cues from the original context are necessary to remember effectively. b. Context Dependent Forgetting - Caused by the absence of external environmental cues which were present at time of learning. Godden and Baddeley (1975) - recall of lists learned underwater or on land was 50% more effectively recalled in the same environment. c. State Dependent Forgetting - Caused by the absence of internal bodily cues that were experienced at the time of learning. Bower (1981) - found that participants recalled more memories learnt when said if he tested them when hypnotized to be in a sad mood than in a happy one. Also, those in the sad state tended to remember unpleasant memories, those who were happy tended to remember mostly happy thoughts. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 28

2. Repression – an defense mechanism from the Psychoanalytic perspective in which traumatic or anxiety provoking events are pushed from the conscious mind to avoid displeasure. The existence of Repression is not totally accepted. Many cognitive psychologists do not believe it exists. Most of the research which supports repression comes from non-experimental case studies. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 29

Key Research: Myers and Brewin (1994) Recall of early experience and the repressive coping style Aim Method Results Conclusion 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 30

5. Other Theories of Memory • • Reconstructive Schema Theory 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 31

Reconstructive Memory Theory • Proposed by Bartlett (1932) - suggests that people do not passively record memories as exact copies but actively try and makes sense of it in terms of what they already know. • Information may be distorted because of what we think could or should have occurred, what we are familiar with, etc. Brewer and Treyens (1981) tested memory of objects in a room which 30 subjects waited in for 35 seconds. Objects which they had previously said they would expect to see in office settings (stapler) were more likely to be remembered than unexpected objects (pair of pliers). Some subjects even falsely remembered objects they expected to see that were actually not there (books and pens). • Generally based on studies of qualitative changes in what is remembered in natural settings 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 32

Schema Theory • • • Developed in the 1970’s by Cognitive Psychologists Suggests that our mind naturally creates “schemas” or mental representations of the world Helps us to remember and make sense of our surroundings Acquired through generalized personal experience or the taught beliefs and stereotpypes of a group or society. We constantly try to make sense of new information we receive by making the best fit with existing schemas. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 33

6. Factors Which Can Influence Memory: • Organization – the more organized information is, the more likely it is to be remembered. • Language – language can create expectations which can distort what is remembered. • Context – the place were learning takes place may influence subsequent recall. • Depth of Processing – The more a person thinks about the information or connects it with other information the more likely it will be remembered. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 34

Advantages: • Allow us to store key meanings of new information without having to remember precise details (unless they were unusual) • Saves memory resources • Help us to understand new information (comparison, integration, interpretation to existing information) • Allows us to fill-in or guess missing aspects of new information • Therefore, they make the world more coherent and predictable Disadvantages: • Information which does not quite fit our schemas (especially minor details) may be ignored, forgotten, or distorted in order to make the information fit better into our existing schemas • Can cause inaccurate, stereotyped, and prejudiced memories. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 35

Real-life Applications and Issues of Memory 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 36

Cognitive Psychology has been applied to several real life applications and issues important to memory in order to better understand them: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 12/14/2021 Eye-Witness Testimony Leading Questions Confirmation Bias and Stereotypes Line ups False Memory Syndrome Mnemonics Cognitive Perspective 37

1. Eye-Witness Testimony • • Memory can be highly unreliable. Some reasons: – Shepherd (1974) found that cross-racial face recognition is poor – Harris (1978) found that 60% of participants in a study would infer information not present in testimony based upon their own expectations. • Often, we unconsciously replace partial recall with reconstructions of such memories, based upon expectations Loftus (1983) reported that jury members tend to trust eyewitness reports more than they do fingerprint experts. • 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 38

2. The Effects of Leading Questions • • • What is a “Leading Question? ” - A question which makes assumptions or implies answers by the way in which it is asked. Such questions by themselves can influence the way in which a witness responds and therefore can ultimately distort the accuracy of the case. Because it such questions are important, psychologists have taken the time to study how influential they can be. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 39

Loftus and Palmer (1974) • Illustrated how the way questions are worded can influence the way witnesses respond. • People were showed a film of a car accident and asked the question: “How fast were the cars going when they ___” • The last word being either smashed, collided, bumped, hit, or contacted. “Smashed” = avg of 41 mph “Contacted” = avg of 32 mph • The word implied a difference that had an effect on the estimates of speed of the cars. • IV __________ DV ___________ • Research Method _________________ Harris (1973) found a mean difference of 26 cm in participants guesses at a picture of a basketball player when asked either: “How tall was the basketball player” or “How short was the basketball player These studies illustrate the ability for language or other information to distort memories which have been previously encoded and stored 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 40

KEY RESEARCH: Loftus et al (1978) Semantic Integration of Verbal information into a visual memory Aim Method Results Conclusion 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 41

3. Confirmation Bias and Stereotypes Bias – a thought or belief which already exists that influences the way we react to a situation, person, or event. Confirmation Bias – when people distort the memory of an event so that it conforms to their expectations rather than reality. Stereotype – a preconceived belief or thought which negatively influences or categorizes another person or group. Betty K – Participants read information about a woman named Betty K. Afterwards, participants were told she was either in a lesbian relationship or was married. The participants told she was a lesbian remembered information consistent with this description. Those told she was married were more likely to recall information about her dating guys. MODIFY? ? 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 42

4. Line-ups (Identity Parades) • Sanders (1984) found that clothing rather than facial features or height is more important to determining recognition. Witnesses are more likely to pick suspects who are wearing similar clothing to the clothes the culprit wore. • People often assume that police would not have a line-up unless the culprit is there. They often pick someone who most looks like the criminal, even if the real culprit is not present. • When witnesses are less nervous, they tend to be less accurate. • Improving Accuracy: Sequential line ups in which members of the line-up are presented one at a time can reduce inaccuracies. . 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 43

5. False Memory Syndrome • • A name given to recovered memories which have no factual basis. Several cases of false memories resulting in criminal proceedings exist. Loftus and Pickrell (1995) illustrated that it is possible to plant false memories. – They interviewed participant and their families regarding past events. – A booklet was then constructed with descriptions of three events which actually happened to the participant, and one that had not. – The false memory described being lost in a shopping mall – Participants were asked to write what they remembered about each of the events. – 7 of 24 participants “remembered” the false event but had even added vivid details. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 44

6. Mnemonics: What are they? • • Techniques which have been experimentally shown to enhance memory Several effective methods for memorizing information have been established as a result of research by cognitive psychologists: 1. Repetition 2. Organization 3. Elaboration 4. Chunking 5. Cues 6. Visual Imagery 7. Loci System 8. Keyword System 9. Peg word System 10. Abbreviations 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 45

Biology and Memory 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Memories of motor skills tend to be stored in the Cerebellum Memories of events and concepts tend to be stored in the Cortex. Certain chemicals enhance or interfere with the ability to remember Studies have shown that electrical stimulation of some areas of the brain cause vivid memories of the past including sights, voices, shapes, colors, etc. Hebb (1949) believed that information brought into the mind creates a neurological memory “trace” in the neurons which naturally would dissappear over time. Repeated firings produce a structural or phyisical change with repeated firings and results in LTM. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 46

Key Research Methods of the Perspective • • • Observations Longitudinal Studies (such as case studies) Experiments “A theory is only as good as the research upon which it is based. ” 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 47

Strengths of the Perspective 1. 2. 3. Highly scientific research Useful - practical applications and implications for society. Recognizes the changing nature of mental structures. Shown that the link between age and behavior cannot be fully made or understood without understanding the changing nature of underlying mental structures. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 48

Weaknesses of the Perspective 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cognitive processes are not directly observable Psychologists must infer the nature of cognitive processes Emphasis on laboratory methods means that much of the data gained may not be ecologically valid. Criticized for being mechanistic and reductionist Criticized for omitting emotional influences 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 49

Possible Essays • • • Evaluate the statement: “’We never forget what we learn. ” Assess any two studies from the Cognitive Perspective. Describe at least three modern applications of the Cognitive Perspective. Describe one theory or model of memory. Assess any two basic assumptions of the cognitive perspective. Using several relevant concepts, explain why people forget. Explain the factors which affect memory. Explain how memory can be enhanced. Describe any 3 cultural or historical influences which were important to the cognitive perspective. To what extent is the cognitive perspective an accurate explanation for human behavior? Assess the methodological limitations of this perspective. 12/14/2021 Cognitive Perspective 50