The Bible and Archaeology Old Testament Archaeology Word

The Bible and Archaeology Old Testament

Archaeology • Word “archaeology” is from the Greek words archaios= “old, ancient” and logos= “word, study. ” • Science devoted to recovery of the remains of ancient civilizations. • Thus it is the “handmaid of history. ” • Archaeology deals with real history; fables, myths, legends, and fictional stories do not leave behind material remains.

Archaeology and the Bible • Much of the Biblical narrative could never be “proven” by archaeology; it is beyond proving since it lies in the domain of faith. • But as we peruse the archaeological finds that follow, ask yourself the following important question: • “What do these things tell me about the nature of the biblical material; am I dealing with fables, myths and legends, or real history? ”

Discovery of Sodom • Search for Sodom was frustrating for many years; students thought it to be located south of the Dead Sea • Dr. Steven Collins and his team found it by going to the text of Genesis repeatedly and then following the indicators • Tall el-Hammam was eventually located E of Jordan on the NE side of the kikkar

Sodom • A huge metropolis that stood for 2000 years • Suddenly destroyed in an inexplicable conflagration that ripped human bodies into pieces and tore buildings off their foundations • Occurred precisely in MB 2, the age of Abraham and Lot

Canaanite Gate at Tel Dan • Excavations began at Tel Dan, Northern Israel, in 1966 under the direction of archaeologist Avrham Biran. • After a few years of digging, a monumental mudbrick gate was unearthed, with an arch constructed by the Canaanites in around 1850 BC - long before the Israelites arrived in the region. In those times the Dan location was called Leshem (Joshua 19: 47) or Laish (Judges 18: 27). • Also revealed, before cessation of the 33 -year dig in 1999, were the city walls, an Israelite sanctuary, sacred pillars, a tomb and various artifacts.

Canaanite Gate at Tel Dan • Among the city ruins, in front of the Gate were found the remnants of a large basalt stele - the largest fragment of which is 32 x 22 cm (12. 5 x 8. 75 inches). • On this, thirteen lines of Aramaic script are partially preserved from around 825 BC, soon after the time of King Ahab of Israel and David's lineal descendant, King Jehosaphat of Judah. • The inscription was created by King Hazael of Aram. Damascus in about 825 BC, and it relates to his father, Hadad II, being victorious in battle against Jehosaphat (c. 860 BC). The most important aspect of the text, however, is that it specifically relates to Hadad defeating the "foot soldiers, charioteers and horsemen of the King of the House of David".

Mudbrick Canaanite Gate – dated 1850 BC

“House of David” Inscription Dated ca 825 BC

“House of God” • House of God Ostracon: This Ostracon (writing on pottery) was discovered in Arad, an ancient Judean administrative center. Written in ancient Hebrew script dated to the early 6 th century BC, it is presumed to be one of the earliest epigraphic references to the Temple in Jerusalem. A portion of the inscription reads: "To my lord Elyashib, may the Lord seek your welfare…and as to the matter which you command me-it is well; he is in the House of God. "

Tell Arad – OT City Walls

Melqart Stela • Discovered in 1939 in an ancient cemetery 4 miles north of Aleppo in Syria. • Dates from ca. 860 BC. • “The monument which Bar-Hadad, son of Tab-Rimmon, son of Hadyan, king of Aram, set up for his lord, Melqart. He vowed (this) to him, and he listened to his voice. ” • Names the Syrian king of 1 Kings 15: 18.

The Zakir Stele • Discovered in 1907 in Afis, 25 mi. SW of Aleppo by H. Pognon. • An inscription of Zakir, king of Hamath and Lu’ash on the base of the figure of a god to whom it is dedicated (‘Ilwer, Akkadian weather god). • Commemorates a victory of Zakir over Ben -Hadad, son of Hazael, king of Syria, and his allies, among them the Hadrach of Zechariah 9: 1. Dated 755 BC. • Syrian king can only be the Ben-Hadad, son of Hazael, mentioned in 2 Kings 13: 24.

The Funerary Inscription of King Uzziah • Found in the collection of the Russian Convent on the Mount of Olives, but there is no record of the place from which it was removed. The Aramaic inscription is incised on a stone tablet (35 x 34 cm. ) and the style of the script dates it to the latter part of the Second Temple period. It tells of the reburial of the remains of Uzziah, King of Judah (769 733 BCE): • “Hither were brought the bones of Uzziah King of Judah and do not open”

The Funerary Inscription of King Uzziah • The Bible recounts King Uzziah's deeds and conquests and also describes his burial: Uzziah rested with his fathers in the burial field of the kings, because, they said, he is a leper. (2 Chronicles 26: 3) • King Uzziah was obviously not buried in the royal tombs within the City of David. Josephus wrote (Antiquities of the Jews 9: 10, 4) that "he was buried alone in his garden". • The necessity to remove the bones of Uzziah from their original burial place was probably connected with the expansion of the city during Herod's reign. Dated 1 st Century BC.

Amman Citadel Milkom Inscription • The Inscription pictured here was found in the 1960's in the Citadel, or fortress, of Amman, ancient Rabbath-ammon. • It is generally believed to be a building inscription, of either a temple or the Citadel itself, although some have suggested that it is an oracle or instruction from the god Milkom, god of the Ammonites. • Milkom is mentioned in the Bible as the “abomination of the Ammonites” (1 Kgs 11: 5, 33; 2 Kgs 23: 13).

Milkom Inscription • It was customary when building a large public building to attach a record of who built the structure, why it was built, and to whom the building was dedicated. Because this inscription is incomplete, we cannot be sure of its original purpose. • The language of the Ammonites is closely related to Hebrew and ancient Phoenician, but the script they used is much closer to the script used for Aramaic at that time. • It has been dated to the 9 th century B. C.

Translation: • 1. Mi]lkom, he has built for you the precinct entrances[ • 2. ]that all who threaten you shall surely die[ • 3. ]I shall surely obliterate, and all who enter[ • 4. ]and amidst all its columns the just will lodge[ • 5. ]. . . there will hang from its doors an ornament. . . [ • 6. ]. . . will be offered within its portico • 7. ]? ? ? • 8. ]peace to you and pe[ace. . . *

The Balaam Inscriptions • An ancient text found at Deir Alla, Jordan, in 1967 tells about the activities of a prophet named Balaam. • Three times in the first four lines he is referred to as "Balaam son of Beor, " exactly as in the Bible. This represents the first Old Testament prophet to be dug up in Bible lands - not his tomb or his skeleton, but a non-biblical text about him. • The text also represents the first prophecy of any scope from the ancient West Semitic world to be found outside the OT, and the first extra-Biblical example of a prophet proclaiming doom to his own people.

The Balaam Inscriptions • The remarkable text found at Deir Alla consists of 119 fragments of plaster inscribed with black and red ink. It was found in the rubble of a building destroyed in an earthquake. It seems to have been one long column with at least 50 lines, displayed on a plastered wall. • According to the excavators' dating, the disaster was most likely the severe earthquake which occurred in the time of King Uzziah (Azariah) and the prophet Amos in about 760 BC (Amos 1: 1; Zec 14: 5). • The lower part of the text shows signs of wear, indicating that it had been on the wall for some time prior to the earthquake.

The Balaam Inscriptions • Written in Aramaic, the text begins with the title "Warnings from the Book of Balaam the son of Beor. He was a seer of the gods. " • It is in red ink, as are other portions of the text where emphasis is desired. The reference to the "Book of Balaam" indicates that the text was part of a pre-existing document and therefore the original date of the material is much earlier than the plaster text itself. • Balaam goes on to relate a vision concerning impending judgment from the gods, and enters into a dispute with his listeners.

The Balaam Inscriptions • There a number of similarities between the text and the account of Balaam in the book of Numbers. • To begin with, the events described in Numbers 22 -24 took place in the same general area where the text was found. • At the time of the Numbers 22 -24 incident, the Israelites were camped on the Plains of Moab, across the Jordan river from Jericho.

The Balaam Inscriptions • Deir Alla is located about 25 miles north of this area, where the Jabbok river flows into the Jordan valley. • Balaam was from Pethor, near "the river" (Num 22: 5), in "Aram" (Num 23: 7; Dt 23: 4). • The reference to Aram led some scholars to conclude Balaam was from northern Syria, in the vicinity of the Euphrates river. • That does not fit well with the Biblical account, however, since Balaam's home seems to have been close to where the Israelites were camped (Num 22: 1 -22; 31: 7 -8). • This find has settled the issue.

Ketef Hinnom Amulets • Two tiny silver scrolls in the form of amulets were discovered at a burial cave at Ketef Hinnom. • Written in ancient Hebrew script dated to the 7 th century BC, the scrolls comprise the earliest-known fragments of a biblical text and pre-date the earliest scrolls from Qumran by more than 300 years.

Ketef Hinnom Amulets • A form of what is known as the priestly blessing is contained in the scroll to the left: "The Lord bless you and protect you. The Lord make his face to shine upon you and be gracious to you. The Lord lift up his countenance to you and give you peace. " It also contains the oldest-known form of the Divine Name (Known as the Tetragrammaton).

The Jotham Signet Ring • This was one of the artifacts from Nelson Glueck's expedition to the Red Sea Port of Akaba (Aquaba), Jordan (published 1941). • Perhaps the most spectacular find was the signet ring of Jotham. The copper or bronze ring was inscribed in Hebrew as "belonging to Jotham (YTM). " The Jotham signet ring may have been owned by a seal bearer of the king, or by the son of Uzziah himself. • The signet ring was important evidence to support at least part of a statement in 2 Chronicles 26: 1 that Uzziah was 16 when he started to reign. He rebuilt Elath and reigned for 52 years. . " Jotham his son reigned in his stead. "

Seal of Megiddo • This seal was discovered in 1904 during the earliest excavation of Megiddo, led by Gottlieb Schumacher. • This was a seal belonging to a royal minister in the 8 th century BC. It is engraved with the figure of a roaring lion (symbol of the kingdom of Judah) with a beautiful curved tail and was skillfully executed. • The inscription reads "Shema" on top, and "Servant of Jeroboam" on the bottom. • "Shema servant of Yarob'oam"

Seal of Megiddo • The inscription actually proclaims the name and rank of its owner, one of the ministers of King Jeroboam II who reigned from 787 -747 BC. • The word "servant" is the Hebrew word "ebed" and is mentioned in the Bible as one of high dignity in the government. • Many seals have been discovered with similar inscriptions like "the servant of the king. "

Asayahu Inscription • The paleo-Hebrew inscription reads, `Belonging to Asayahu, servant of the king' and dates to the 7 th century BC. • `Asaih' is the shortened form of `Asayahu' and can be read about in 2 Kings 22: 12 and 2 Chronicles 34: 20. It could be that this seal belonged to Asaiah, a servant of King Josiah, who was sent by the king in 622 BC to the Temple in Jerusalem to examine the Scroll of the Law - perhaps being the Book of Deuteronomy - which was discovered by the High Priest Hilkiah after being lost. It is of interest to know that Josiah banned horses as a symbol during his religious reform. “He removed the horses that the kings of Judah had dedicated to the sun at the entrance to the House of the Lord. ” (2 Kings 23: 11)

Seal of Jezebel • Carved in Phoenician style, the seal incorporates such Egyptian elements as the ankh, upper left, a sphinx, and the winged disk. Four mirror image paleo-Hebrew letters, 2 just below the winged disk and 2 at lower left and right, spell out ‘yzbl’, “Jezebel. ” • There also 2 uraeus cobras and the royal hawk. (1993 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, Mar/Apr p. 28.

Cult Center at Dan • The Arabic name of this large 50 acre site is Tell el-Qadi. Avraham Biran excavated there from 1966. • Among his numerous finds are a very well– preserved gate from about 1750 B. C. , a gate complex from the divided monarchy, and a cult site where Jeroboam’s golden calves may have been placed. • Cultic center has carved “dressed” limestone that form the foundation of the cult podium at Dan. Note the margins around the edges and the slightly projecting “bosses” in the center of each stone. This technique was developed in Phoenicia and was used here at Dan and elsewhere in Israel.

Cult Center at Dan • This area was a worship center at least from the time of the first king of Israel - namely Jeroboam I (930909 B. C. ). • He is the one who placed golden calves in Bethel and here at Dan (1 Kings 12: 29 -30). • The area remained a sacred area through the fourth century A. D.

Danite High Place • A number of high places in the vicinity of the city gate have also been found by archaeologists. • The Bible describes Dan as a center of false religion in Israel from earliest times (Judges 18: 14, 18). • Archaeology bears this out in a remarkable way.

Hezekiah’s Tunnel • The most magnificent waterworks of ancient Jerusalem is Hezekiah’s Tunnel. • The tunnel is hewn inside the hill in order to protect the access to water from enemies. • It channels the water from the Gihon fountainhead to the Shiloah pool, which was within the new walls of the city built by Hezekiah.

Hezekiah’s Tunnel • King Hezekiah built the tunnel in preparation for the Assyrian siege (701 BC): "This same Hezekiah also stopped the upper watercourse of Gihon, and brought it straight down to the west side of the city of David. " (2 Chron. 32: 30) • The external entrance to the Gihon spring was hidden: ". . . and many people gathered together, and they stopped up all of the fountains" (2 Chron 32: 4). • Then the waters of the Gihon were channeled through the tunnel to the Shiloah Pool, also built by Hezekiah (2 Kgs 20: 20). • The pool was located outside the original fortifications of the City of David (2 Chron. 32: 30), but within the wall that Hezekiah had built. This is the main reason for construction of the southern part of the wall.

Warren’s Shaft: • The primary function of Warren's Shaft was to provide a means of obtaining water during times of war. • It connected the northern part of the City of David to a protected water source. The other water sources are located outside the city walls. • The entrance to Warren's Shaft is located behind the city wall. • People would enter the shaft and travel down the stepped and horizontal tunnels. When they reached the end of the horizontal shaft, buckets were lowered into the vertical shaft to draw up water. • Therefore the inhabitants of the city could safely obtain water, without leaving the safety of the city wall. Later, Hezekiah would build his tunnel and construct the Siloam Pool within the city walls.

Warren’s Shaft: • Warren's Shaft was believed to be the means in which David conquered Jebus in 2 Sam 5: 5 -10 and 1 Chron 11: 4 -6 which credits Joab with capturing the city by leading the attack by climbing up the shaft. • Kathleen Kenyon and John Gray were both of the opinion that Warren's Shaft is the sinnor mentioned in the Biblical stories. • Kenyon believed that the shaft was accessible from the outside and also that the tunnel is Jebusite.

The Location of the Siloam Inscription “[. . . when] (the tunnel) was driven through. And this was the way in which it was cut through: While [. . . ] (were) still [. . . ] axe(s), each man toward his fellow, and while there were still three cubits to be cut through, [there was heard] the voice of a man calling to his fellows, for there was an overlap in the rock on the right [and on the left]. And when the tunnel was driven through, the quarrymen hewed (the rock), each man toward his fellow, axe against axe; and the water flowed from the spring toward the reservoir for 1200 cubits, and the height of the rock above the head(s) of the quarrymen was 100 cubits. ”

Siloam Tunnel Inscription – Istanbul Museum

Moabite Stone (Mesha Stele) 860 B. C. • The Moabite stone was discovered in 1868 at Dhiban. It was found in the land of Moab and was carved with an inscription which its finder, a man named Klein, recognized as being important. • He had insufficient funds to purchase the stone and had to go to Europe to raise them. While he was away, the Arabs broke the stone into pieces, so they could make more money out of the deal. • Fortunately, a Frenchman, M. Clermont-Ganneau had made a “squeeze, ” an impression, so that they were able to piece the stone together correctly and decipher its message.

Moabite Stone • The language in which the inscription is written is very similar to Biblical Hebrew, and the events it records supplement most remarkably the record from 1 Kings chapter 16 to 2 Kings chapter 3. • Both explain that during the reigns of Omri and Ahab, Moab was tributary to Israel, but that after the death of Ahab, Mesha King of Moab rebelled. Mesha records on this stone that after this time, he was unable to defeat Jehoram in several battles and rid the land of him. The actual words are:

• "I am Mesha, son of Chemosh. . . (? ), King of Moab, the Dibonite. My father reigned over Moab thirty years, and I became king after my father, and I made this high place for Chemosh in , the high place of deliverance, because he had delivered me from all that attacked me, and because he had made me see my desire upon all my enemies. Omri, King of Israel, oppressed Israel many days because Chemosh was angry with his land; and his son succeeded him, and he also said, 'I will oppress Moab. ' In my days he said this, and I saw my desire upon him, and Israel was humbled with everlasting humiliation. Omri had taken possession of the land of Medeba and [his people] occupied it during his days and half the days of his son, forty years; but Chemosh restored it in my days. . And the men of Gad had occupied the land of Ataroth for a long time, and the King of Israel had built up Ataroth for himself. And I fought against the city and took it, and I slew all the people from the city, a sight for the eyes of Chemosh and of Moab. . And Chemosh said to me, 'Go, take Nebo against Israel. ' And I went by night and fought against it from the break of dawn until noon, and I took it and slew all [that were in] it, seven thousand men and boys and women and girls and maid servants; for to Ashtor-Chemosh I had devoted it. And I took from there the vessels of YHWH and brought them before Chemosh. And the King of Israel had fortified Jahaz and occupied it while he was at war with me, and Chemosh drove him out from before me. And I took of Moab two hundred, all its chiefs, and I attacked Jahaz and took it, in order to add it to Dibon. "

Moabite Stone • Moab's fortresses and her cities were restored and made stronger. Her earlier defeats were explained as being due to the anger of her gods. • The stone records the name of Israel's God, Yahweh. The inscription does contain one error. It boasts that as a result of Moab's victories 'Israel perished for ever'. • It is the most extensive inscription from ancient Palestine. Now housed at the Louvre Museum, Paris.

The Taylor Prism • This fascinating, six-sided clay artifact stands about 15 inches tall, and was found in Nineveh in 1830 by British colonel R. Taylor. Thus, it is known as the “Taylor Prism. ” The prism contains six columns covered by over 500 lines of writing, and was purchased in the winter of 1919 -1920 by J. H. Breasted for the Oriental Institute in Chicago. • Event described in 2 Kgs 18 -19; 2 Chron 32; and Isaiah 36 -37. • Part of the text on the Taylor Prism has Sennacherib’s account of what happened in his military tour of Judah is as follows:

• “As for Hezekiah the Judahite, who did not submit to my yoke: forty-six of his strong, walled cities, as well as the small towns in their area, which were without number, by levelling with battering-rams and by bringing up seige-engines, and by attacking and storming on foot, by mines, tunnels, and breeches, I besieged and took them. 200, 150 people, great and small, male and female, horses, mules, asses, camels, cattle and sheep without number, I brought away from them and counted as spoil. (Hezekiah) himself, like a caged bird I shut up in Jerusalem, his royal city. I threw up earthworks against him — the one coming out of the city-gate, I turned back to his misery. His cities, which I had despoiled, I cut off from his land, and to Mitinti, king of Ashdod, Padi, king of Ekron, and Silli-bêl, king of Gaza, I gave (them). And thus I diminished his land. I added to the former tribute, and I laid upon him the surrender of their land imposts—gifts for my majesty. As for Hezekiah, the terrifying splendor of my majesty overcame him, and the Arabs and his mercenary troops which he had brought in to strengthen Jerusalem, his royal city, deserted him. In addition to the thirty talents of gold and eight hundred talents of silver, gems, antimony, jewels, large carnelians, ivory-inlaid couches, ivory-inlaid chairs, elephant hides, elephant tusks, ebony, boxwood, all kinds of valuable treasures, as well as his daughters, his harem, his male and female musicians, which he had brought after me to Nineveh, my royal city. To pay tribute and to accept servitude, he dispatched his messengers. . . ”

Black Obelisk of Shalmanezer III • The Black Obelisk was discovered by the Englishman, Sir Austen Henry Layard, in 1846, during a large scale excavation at Nimrud, an ancient site located south of Baghdad, in modern-day Iraq. • The obelisk records the exploits of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (858 -824 BC). • Composed of black alabaster, the original obelisk stands 2. 02 m in height; it has four sides, each with 5 picture panels interspersed with cuneiform inscriptions; there is also cuneiform above and below each set of pictures.

The Black Obelisk • The inscriptions record the annals of thirtytwo years of Shalmaneser’s reign. • Most of the illustrations record the tributes brought to Shalmaneser by various vassal kings. • The second panel depicts Shalmaneser receiving tribute from Jehu, king of Israel, who is prostrate before the king. • Shalmaneser holds a bowl in his raised hand is sheltered by a parasol held by an attendant.

Black Obelisk Reads: • “Tribute of Jehu, son of Omri. Silver, gold, a golden saplu (bowl), a golden vase with pointed bottom, golden goblets, pitchers of gold, tin, staves (staffs) for the hand of the king, puruhtu (javelins? ), I received from him. ”

King Jehu of Israel is shown in Semitic dress prostrated before Shalmanesar. This is the only known depiction of a king of Israel.

Canaanite God Baal • Baal, one of the sons of El [the chief god of the Canaanites], was the executive god of the pantheon, the god of thunder and winter storms, the dynamic warrior god who champions the divine order against the menacing forces of chaos. He is also identified with vegetation and the seasonal fertility cycle.

Canaanite God Baal • Baal is sometimes called the 'son of Dagon'. Dagon was also a god of vegetation, specifically corn, which is what his name means. • As the summer drew to an end and the rains were due, the peasants would suffer a crisis of anxiety - would the rains come? • By calling upon Baal, the rain god, and encouraging his intervention by rituals of imitative magic involving sexual union, their tensions were released and purged.

Baal Worship • Baal worship apparently had its origin in the belief that every tract of ground owed its productivity to a supernatural being, or baal, that dwelt there. The farmers probably thought that from the Baalim, or fertility gods, of various regions came the increase of crops, fruit and cattle. • The worship of Baal was accompanied with lascivious rites (1 Kings 14: 24), the sacrifice of children in the fire by parents (Jer. 19: 5), and kissing the image (1 Kings 19: 18; Hos 13: 2). • Baal was often associated with the goddess Astoreth (Judg. 2: 13), and in the vicinity of his altar there was often an Asherah. (Judg. 6: 30; 1 Kings 16: 32 -33, R. V. )

Ashtoreth • She was the goddess of sexual love, maternity and fertility. Prostitution as a religious rite in the service of this goddess under various names is widely attested. The identification of 'Ashtart with Aphrodite is evidence of her sexual character. • Ashtaroth (plural of Ashtoreth). In connection with the plural of Baal, a general designation for the female divinities of the Canaanites. • Asherah refers to a wooden pole or mast which stood at Canaanite places of worship (Exo. 34: 13); originally it was, perhaps, the trunk of a tree with branches chopped off, and was regarded as the wooden symbol of the goddess Asherah, who like Ashtoreth, was a type of fertility. It was erected beside the altar of Baal. (Judg 6: 25, 28)

THE CYRUS CYLINDER • Cyrus, King of the Medo-Persian Empire, is among the most important foreign rulers of the Israelite nation. • Isaiah documented that the Babylonian Empire would fall to the Medes and the Persians (Isaiah 13; 21: 1 -10). • Not only did Isaiah detail the particular empire to which the Babylonians would fall, but he also called Cyrus by name (Isaiah 44: 28; 45: 1 -5). • Amazingly, Isaiah’s prophecy was made roughly 150 years before Cyrus was born (Isaiah prophesied in about 700 B. C.

THE CYRUS CYLINDER • Cyrus captured the city of Babylon in 539 B. C. ). • To add to Cyrus’ significance, Isaiah predicted that Cyrus would act as the Lord’s “shepherd. ” • In fact, Isaiah recorded these words of the Lord concerning Cyrus: “And he shall perform all My pleasure, even saying to Jerusalem, ‘You shall be built, ’ and to the temple, ‘Your foundation shall be laid’ ” (Isaiah 44: 28).

• In 1879, Hormuz Rassam found a small clay cylinder about nine inches long, in the ancient city of Babylon. • Upon the clay cylinder, King Cyrus had inscribed, among other things, his victory over the city of Babylon and his policy toward the nations he had captured, as well as his policy toward their various gods and religions. • It now resides in the British Museum. • A translation of a segment of the cuneiform text found on the cylinder is as follows:

“. . . I returned to [these] sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been in ruins for a long time, the images which [used] to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries. I [also] gathered all their [former] inhabitants and returned [to them] their habitations. Furthermore, I resettled upon the command of Marduk the great lord, all the gods of Sumer and Akkad whom Nabonidus has brought into Babylon to the anger of the lord of the gods, unharmed, in their [former] chapels, the places which made them happy. May all the gods who I have resettled in their sacred cities ask daily Bel and Nebo for long life for me and may they recommend me. . . to Marduk, my lord, may they say thus: Cyrus, the king who worships you and Cambyses, his son, [. . . ] all of them I settled in a peaceful place. ”

Archaeology and the Bible • Remember our starting point? • Archaeology deals with real history; fables, myths, legends, and fictional stories do not leave behind material remains. • “What do these things tell me about the nature of the biblical material; am I dealing with fables, myths and legends, or real history? ”