Terrorism With a Focus on SalafiJihad Defining Terrorism

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Terrorism With a Focus on Salafi-Jihad

Terrorism With a Focus on Salafi-Jihad

Defining Terrorism • Arafat, 1974: “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter. ”

Defining Terrorism • Arafat, 1974: “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter. ” • Ackerman and La. Fee 2009: 'the threatened or actual use of illegal force directed against civilian targets by nonstate actors in order to attain a political goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation. '

Terrorism • State (i. e. genocide) or non-state • Suicidal or non-suicidal • Role

Terrorism • State (i. e. genocide) or non-state • Suicidal or non-suicidal • Role of spectacle, aimed at changing mass opinion • Rational/strategic or irrational • Driven by grievances or ideology, i. e. instrumental or cultural?

Linked to a Range of Ideologies • • • Anarchists, 19 th c Socialist

Linked to a Range of Ideologies • • • Anarchists, 19 th c Socialist Nationalist Religious Here we focus on Salafi (Sunni Fundamentalist) Islamic Jihadism

Origins of Salafi-Jihad • Challenge of secular nationalism • Role of Muslim Brothers •

Origins of Salafi-Jihad • Challenge of secular nationalism • Role of Muslim Brothers • Al-Jihad • Gamaat Islamiya

Intellectual Origins • • • Qutb, Faraj in Egypt Mawdudi in Pakistan Shariati, Khomeini

Intellectual Origins • • • Qutb, Faraj in Egypt Mawdudi in Pakistan Shariati, Khomeini in Iran Reinterpretation of jihad From spirit to combat 'Defensive' jihad as a religious obligation

Home Front: Muslim World • Qutb, Khoimeini, Mawdudi influence Al-Jihad in Egypt • Afghanistan:

Home Front: Muslim World • Qutb, Khoimeini, Mawdudi influence Al-Jihad in Egypt • Afghanistan: Saudi, Pakistani and US backing • 1982 -92, some 35, 000 volunteers from 43 countries • Also tens of thousands of madrassa students • Over 100, 000 foreign radicals experienced the conflict • 'blowback': GIA in Algeria, jihad across the Muslim world • Al Qaeda forms in Afghanistan

Salafi-Jihad: From Local to Global • Cross-fertilization, cosmopolitan view of the world • Afghanistan

Salafi-Jihad: From Local to Global • Cross-fertilization, cosmopolitan view of the world • Afghanistan veterans 1979 -87. Azzam and bin Laden • Taliban's horizons widened • Riyadh and Peshawar prior to 1990 s

'Blowback' in the West from Afghan -Soviet War • 1993 World Trade Center bombing

'Blowback' in the West from Afghan -Soviet War • 1993 World Trade Center bombing – Sheik Abdel Rahman • 1994 -5 hijacking and summer bombing campaign in France - Groupe Islamique Armee (GIA)

Rise in Overseas Terrorism • 1995 Paris Metro Bombing • 1998 US Embassy Bombings

Rise in Overseas Terrorism • 1995 Paris Metro Bombing • 1998 US Embassy Bombings • 2000 USS Cole, Aden • 2 of 64 terrorist movements were religious in the 1980 s, this jumped to 46 percent by 1995. (Philpott 2007: 520)

1972 v January 2008

1972 v January 2008

1990 s Spread • Paris (up to 1994), New York (to 2001) and London

1990 s Spread • Paris (up to 1994), New York (to 2001) and London (up to 2003) as centres. Also Hamburg, Stockholm, Aachen, Brussels… • GIA in Stockholm, Gamaa in Copenhagen • 'Londonistan': Abu Hamza, Abu Qatada, Abu Musab, Ayman al-Zawahiri • Newspapers like Al-Ansar globalise the Algerian struggle

Failure of Sunni Islamic Revolution • Only successes in 70 s Iran, 80 s

Failure of Sunni Islamic Revolution • Only successes in 70 s Iran, 80 s Sudan, 90 s Afghanistan • Failure of jihad in Algeria, 1997 • Crushed or contained in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Maghreb • Downfall of Taliban, 2001 • Zarqawi's Failure in Iraq 2007 -8 • Shift to Terrorism as spectacle

Al Qaeda and Global Terrorism • Collapse of command structure, rise of Al Qaeda

Al Qaeda and Global Terrorism • Collapse of command structure, rise of Al Qaeda 'brand' and local cells • Role of Globalisation: Headline-grabbing attacks beamed around the world. Enhances symbolic power • Status and Martyrdom rather than a strategy for Islamic revolution?

Why Salafi-Jihadi Terror in the West? • Political Grievances: Iraq, Palestine, Support of secular

Why Salafi-Jihadi Terror in the West? • Political Grievances: Iraq, Palestine, Support of secular nationalist regimes • Apocalyptic Martyrdom: Bukhari (52: 54) - The words of Muhammad: "I would love to be martyred in Allah's Cause and then get resurrected and then get martyred, and then get resurrected again and then get martyred. "

Religion and Terror • Devout Muslims no more likely to support violence (Tessler 2007);

Religion and Terror • Devout Muslims no more likely to support violence (Tessler 2007); BUT • Those who support Islamic state are more likely to support violence (Fair 2006) • How radicalised? : – Religiously illiterate: videos, internet and prison – Religious fundamentalists: networks of friends in Salafi mosques (Sageman); terrorism as spiritual act (Maher)

Rewards to Suicide Terrorists • Altruistic suicide: – Esteem of martyrdom, wealth to family

Rewards to Suicide Terrorists • Altruistic suicide: – Esteem of martyrdom, wealth to family (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) – Proof: higher-than-average social profile (Pape) • Anomic suicide: – Family disapproves (ie some 7/7 bombers) – Lower-than-average social profile for European bombers

Muslim World Public Opinion • Many support attacks on western military targets (i. e.

Muslim World Public Opinion • Many support attacks on western military targets (i. e. Iraq, Afghanistan) • Do not support attacks at home – especially after Islamists claim many Muslim victims • Few European Muslims support, but there is an important 10 -20 pc minority in support or in sympathy • Do terrorists even care about or need public support? Clearly not Aum Shinrikyo in Japan; some say QAP was a self-contained network of Arab-Afghans

Nationalistic aspects • State-sponsorship by Iran, Sudan, Taliban Afghanistan, competing with Saudis for world

Nationalistic aspects • State-sponsorship by Iran, Sudan, Taliban Afghanistan, competing with Saudis for world Islamist leadership • Anti-western, anti-occupation, territorial, historically conscious • Shari'a as anti-western symbol? • Localised nature of many conflicts, ie Chechnya, Aceh, Moros, Palestine

Debate • Strategic or Apocalyptic • Rational or Emotional/Vengeful • Nationalistic or Religious-Apocalyptic

Debate • Strategic or Apocalyptic • Rational or Emotional/Vengeful • Nationalistic or Religious-Apocalyptic

Strategic View • Foremost advocate is Robert Pape • Suicide Terror as rational-strategic and

Strategic View • Foremost advocate is Robert Pape • Suicide Terror as rational-strategic and nationalistic rather than religious

Suicide Terror as Rational Nationalism • Key aspects 1. Only when a foreign occupier

Suicide Terror as Rational Nationalism • Key aspects 1. Only when a foreign occupier is present 2. Occupier is a democracy 3. Religious difference between occupier and natives – – Nationalist aspect Goal is strategic: to convince democratic electorates to give up

Not Religious • Suicide Terrorists Included: 1. Secular kamikaze pilots 2. Marxist Tamil Tigers

Not Religious • Suicide Terrorists Included: 1. Secular kamikaze pilots 2. Marxist Tamil Tigers 3. Secular Nationalist Christians in Lebanon, 1982 -3

Alternative View • Terrorism linked to ideologies • Religious and secular types • Chiliasmmillenarianism

Alternative View • Terrorism linked to ideologies • Religious and secular types • Chiliasmmillenarianism • Perfectionist ideal – sometimes in the past, sometimes totally new • Revolutionary Impulse • Very close link to violence • Eschatological/ apocalyptic

Modernity Shapes Ideology • Modernity emphasises action, not withdrawal • Modernity pushes for a

Modernity Shapes Ideology • Modernity emphasises action, not withdrawal • Modernity pushes for a rationalisation of religious content • Modernity means modern arms and organisation • Globalisation and mass media act as force multiplier for spectacle of terrorism

Secular or Religious Forms • Paranoia, in a sea of enemies: Manichaean view of

Secular or Religious Forms • Paranoia, in a sea of enemies: Manichaean view of the world; 'cosmic war' • History has a direction • Secular Ideologies are forms of chiliastic religion • Medieval millenarian movements, French Revolutionary Terror, anarchists, Soviets, Nazis, Islamists, Neoconservatives

Conclusion: Questions • Is Salafi-Jihad: – strategic or irrational? – Nationalistic or Chiliastic? –

Conclusion: Questions • Is Salafi-Jihad: – strategic or irrational? – Nationalistic or Chiliastic? – Driven by grievances & hatred, or by prospect of martyrdom and/or millennium • Do terrorists act with or without public support? • Is religious terrorism worse than any other kind? • When/why does the jihad move to the global level, and when back to the local? • Role of globalisation and modernity