Terms for Literary and Rhetorical Analysis Devices Strategies

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Terms for Literary and Rhetorical Analysis Devices, Strategies, and Techniques for AP English Language

Terms for Literary and Rhetorical Analysis Devices, Strategies, and Techniques for AP English Language and Composition 1

Pick a category. . . Rhetorical devices Structures and types of arguments 2 Literary

Pick a category. . . Rhetorical devices Structures and types of arguments 2 Literary and figurative devices Syntax Tone and style

Back to categories Rhetorical Techniques Rhetorical appeals Anticipated Argument Syllogism Logical fallacies Identify Lines

Back to categories Rhetorical Techniques Rhetorical appeals Anticipated Argument Syllogism Logical fallacies Identify Lines of Proof

Back to rhetorical techniques Rhetorical Appeals Ethos 4 Pathos Logos

Back to rhetorical techniques Rhetorical Appeals Ethos 4 Pathos Logos

Ethos—invoking character “We believe good men more fully and more readily than others” -Aristotle

Ethos—invoking character “We believe good men more fully and more readily than others” -Aristotle Establish the morality of the speaker, or Show that the speaker has good intentions, or Show that speaker is credible or is an authority Common ethical appeals: God and religion Claim something is the RIGHT thing to do Personal history that reflects good deeds Use “we” to imply unity with audience Use expert testimony to support self Ask yourself: What character is the speaker presenting? How? Is that character reliable enough that you can accept her/his argument?

Back to Rhetorical Appeals Ethos In an argument promoting strict standards for toxic emissions,

Back to Rhetorical Appeals Ethos In an argument promoting strict standards for toxic emissions, Al Gore might: Establish his own twenty year crusade to protect the environment Cite evidence from credible Ph. Ds and organizations that have conducted studies that support his claim In a speech to announce her candidacy for Governor of North Carolina, Libby Dole might: Reference her work with the red cross Establish her selfless goals to benefit the population of the state Tell an anecdote about attending church with her family

Pathos—emotional appeal Stir the emotions of the audience Use audience’s anger, fear, patriotism, sympathy

Pathos—emotional appeal Stir the emotions of the audience Use audience’s anger, fear, patriotism, sympathy to call them into action Use CHARGED DICTION—words with emotional connotation Tell emotional anecdotes Create imagery that inspires emotion

Back to Rhetorical Appeals Pathos In a speech rousing an army to fight courageously,

Back to Rhetorical Appeals Pathos In a speech rousing an army to fight courageously, a general might: Allude to soldiers of the past who have demonstrated courage Reference a recent event that evokes anger Remind soldiers of the families they hope to protect by winning their war In a letter encouraging county commissioners to invest in a poverty-stricken area of town, a person might: Describe sympathetic images of suffering in the community Narrate an anecdote about a man who died from heat stroke because he could not afford an air conditioner

Logos—logical appeals Use logical explanations Use reasons to support ideas Substantiate/support your claims Deductive

Logos—logical appeals Use logical explanations Use reasons to support ideas Substantiate/support your claims Deductive reasoning Syllogism Enthymeme

Logos In an editorial arguing in favor of wire tapping without warrants, a writer

Logos In an editorial arguing in favor of wire tapping without warrants, a writer might: Cite a survey that shows a high percentage of public support for the program Provide evidence that such a program can reduce threat of terrorism In a discussion convincing your parents to allow you a later curfew, you might: Establish the conditions under which a person ought to be permitted adult responsibilities Show evidence that your responsible friends are permitted later curfews and have not broken them or been harmed during later hours

Deductive Logic If a fact is generally true about a group, then it is

Deductive Logic If a fact is generally true about a group, then it is true about parts of that group. For example, if all students are unique, then Kandes is unique. Used when a believable truth or principle can be used to determine truth for a specific case Syllogism

Deductive Logic—Syllogism Major premise: a definition or statement of truth Must be general enough

Deductive Logic—Syllogism Major premise: a definition or statement of truth Must be general enough to be accepted as true Should be specific enough to prepare the minor premise and conclusion It’s like the transitive property of equality: if A=B and B=C then A=C Minor premise: an example of that definition or statement Generally requires evidence Conclusion: What logically makes sense following the major and minor premises So deductive logic is mathematical

Syllogism example Major Premise Minor Premise Conclusion 13 All humans are mortal. Socrates is

Syllogism example Major Premise Minor Premise Conclusion 13 All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Socrates is mortal.

Syllogism example Rules that restrict free speech are unconstitutional. The dress code restricts students

Syllogism example Rules that restrict free speech are unconstitutional. The dress code restricts students from expressing themselves freely. The dress code is unconstitutional. 14

Back to Structures Back to Rhetorical Appeals Syllogisms—some suggestions Use syllogisms to prove a

Back to Structures Back to Rhetorical Appeals Syllogisms—some suggestions Use syllogisms to prove a specific case. Start by figuring out what you want to prove (for example: the dress code is unfair) Then figure out what major premise you can use to make your point (for example: rules that stifle individuality are unfair) Write and support your minor premise with examples, statistics, etc.

Identify Back to rhetorical techniques Speaker attempts to identify or connect with the audience

Identify Back to rhetorical techniques Speaker attempts to identify or connect with the audience by alluding to what they have in common: Shared history Shared heros Shared values Shared religion Shared beliefs Shared mythos Sometimes use of 1 st person plural (we, us, our) can help speaker identify with audience. 16

Back to rhetorical techniques Lines of Proof Socrates--Plato--Aristotle--Alexander the Great Ancient Greek philosopher, scientist,

Back to rhetorical techniques Lines of Proof Socrates--Plato--Aristotle--Alexander the Great Ancient Greek philosopher, scientist, etc. Wrote Rhetorica Analytical thinker--classified everything into categories, subcategories, etc. Categorized 64 lines of proof Structures for logical argumentation used commonly by people constructing arguments. Motives of Self Gain Correlative Ideas Presence and Absence of Cause and Effect Consistency with Past Action Analogy Logical Division A Fortiori Causes Produce the Same Results

Back to Lines of Proof Motives of Self Gain If a person can gain

Back to Lines of Proof Motives of Self Gain If a person can gain or can prevent loss, then they are likely to act in order to do so. If Ellen were to cheat, she would avoid failing 10 th grade. Ellen probably cheated.

Back to Lines of Proof Correlative Ideas If an act is good or likely

Back to Lines of Proof Correlative Ideas If an act is good or likely to happen, then it is right or likely that a person cause it to happen. If it is acceptable for children to be paddled for misbehavior, then it should be acceptable for teachers to paddle them when they misbehave.

Back to Lines of Proof Presence and Absence of Cause and Effect If a

Back to Lines of Proof Presence and Absence of Cause and Effect If a cause is present, then the effect is also present. If a cause is absent, then the effect is also absent. The teacher’s excessive homework assignments were the cause of my failure. If she would stop giving so much homework, I would pass.

Back to Lines of Proof Consistency with Past Action If a behavior or fact

Back to Lines of Proof Consistency with Past Action If a behavior or fact has generally existed in the past, then it is likely or good that it exists in the present. America has always been a land of opportunity for people of all ethnicities. America should continue to offer citizenship to people of Arab nations.

Back to Lines of Proof Causes Produce the Same Results If two results are

Back to Lines of Proof Causes Produce the Same Results If two results are the same, then their causes are the same. Jessie’s parents valued education, and Jessie succeeded in school. Martha also succeeded in school, so it is likely that her parents valued education.

Back to Lines of Proof A Fortiori Latin: “from the stronger” If X is

Back to Lines of Proof A Fortiori Latin: “from the stronger” If X is true in a less likely case, then X must also be true in a more likely case. We consider Bethany, who has only killed one person in her life, an immoral monster, so we must consider Walker, who has murdered many times, immoral as well.

Back to Lines of Proof Logical Division If result X has several possible causes

Back to Lines of Proof Logical Division If result X has several possible causes (A, B, C), but all but one of those causes (B & C) can be eliminated, then the remaining cause (A) must exist as the sole cause of the result. You can fail because of poor attendance or low grades. Your grades are A’s, so you must have missed school too many days.

Back to Lines of Proof Analogy Two situations that are alike in most observable

Back to Lines of Proof Analogy Two situations that are alike in most observable ways will tend to be alike in other ways. The Soviet Union and China both had communist revolutions… Soviet dictators corrupted communist priciples, so China probably did, too.

Back to rhetorical techniques Anticipated Argument Two kinds of anticipated When a writer predicts

Back to rhetorical techniques Anticipated Argument Two kinds of anticipated When a writer predicts an opponent’s argument and argument: addresses them in his own argument. But doesn’t it harm his argument? If he doesn’t, then the opponent’s position is presented unopposed and is assumed to be true. Concession Refutation

Concession Conceding or admitting validity or truth in opponent’s argument. 27 In an argument

Concession Conceding or admitting validity or truth in opponent’s argument. 27 In an argument promoting the war against terror, President Bush might admit that his opponents are correct when they argue for peace, because war is only a last resort.

Refutation Acknowledging your opponent’s argument and explaining why it is invalid, illogical, or false

Refutation Acknowledging your opponent’s argument and explaining why it is invalid, illogical, or false 28 Back to rhetorical techniques In an argument promoting the war against terror, President Bush might acknowledge his opponent’s call for peace but argue that peace will not generate itself when violent terrorists are attacking. Peace will be made only when war can be ended.

Back to rhetorical techniques Logical fallacies An argument that is, either deliberately or accidentally,

Back to rhetorical techniques Logical fallacies An argument that is, either deliberately or accidentally, flawed in its logic. The Informed Argument isolates 15 logical fallacies. Several fallacies are defined in the slides that follow. 29 Faulty Analogy Ad Hominem Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc False Dilemna Non. Sequitor Slippery Slope Begging the Question Equivocating Faulty Generaliz ation Red Herring Opposing a Straw Man

Back to Logical Fallacies Faulty Analogy Making an argument by comparing two scenarios, situations,

Back to Logical Fallacies Faulty Analogy Making an argument by comparing two scenarios, situations, or events. The analogy becomes faulty when the comparison is unreasonable to the audience. Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the head in order to make them work, so must employees. 30

Back to Logical Fallacies Ad Hominem Argument “To the man” Rather than arguing an

Back to Logical Fallacies Ad Hominem Argument “To the man” Rather than arguing an issue, the speaker directs an argument toward the individual. President Roosevelt’s New Deal was not a sound policy. His upper-class background made him an incapable representative for the poor. 31

Back to Logical Fallacies Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc “After, therefore because of” An

Back to Logical Fallacies Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc “After, therefore because of” An argument that suggests that because one event followed another, then it must have happened as a result of the event. The economy was in great shape when President Clinton was in office, but it fell apart when President Bush took office. He must be the cause. 32

Back to Logical Fallacies Begging the Question Eating Mc. Donald’s is bad for you

Back to Logical Fallacies Begging the Question Eating Mc. Donald’s is bad for you because it’s unhealthy 33 “Circular Reasoning” When the premise from which an argument is presented is only believable to someone who already believes conclusion. Usually, premise and conclusion are essentially the same.

Back to Logical Fallacies Equivocating Using vague or ambiguous language to mislead an audience.

Back to Logical Fallacies Equivocating Using vague or ambiguous language to mislead an audience. Eg. freedom, justice, real, right, society, power. America is a land of truth and justice, and justice is what will be dealt to any nation supporting the terrorists. 34

Back to Logical Fallacies Opposing a Straw Man A straw man is an artificial

Back to Logical Fallacies Opposing a Straw Man A straw man is an artificial or imagined opponent with positions that are easy to refute. Speakers will sometimes refute the “straw man” rather than debating the actual opponent. Pretending to oppose your opponent by Students will argue that XSTOP prevents them from refuting only an extreme position from obtaining research they need the opposing point of view. 35 for their courses, but research of pornographic images and offensive rap lyrics is hardly pertinent to their studies.

Back to Logical Fallacies False Dilemma Posing only two options (as solutions, etc. )

Back to Logical Fallacies False Dilemma Posing only two options (as solutions, etc. ) when other possibilities exist. But officer, I had to speed; otherwise, I would have missed curfew, which is illegal, too. 36

Back to Logical Fallacies Non-Sequitur “It does not follow” Presenting a conclusion that does

Back to Logical Fallacies Non-Sequitur “It does not follow” Presenting a conclusion that does not follow logically from the evidence or explanation. It is important to question the assumptions, or warrants, being used in these arguments. 37 Little Nicky stars Adam Sandler, one of the funniest comedians of our time. The movie has to be hilarious.

Sliding Down a Slippery Slope Arguing that one small step will inevitably lead to

Sliding Down a Slippery Slope Arguing that one small step will inevitably lead to extreme consequences. 38 If we permit cloning of cells for medical purposes, then, before you know it, we’ll have armies of cloned humans, an Aryan Nation, perhaps, as Hitler once conceived.

Back to Logical Fallacies Faulty Generalization Arguing that if something is generally true about

Back to Logical Fallacies Faulty Generalization Arguing that if something is generally true about a group, then it must be true about any part of that group. The generalization becomes faulty when it is too broad or fails to recognize the possibility of variation within a group. This fallacy is a reminder that premises must be believable. 39 Democrats defend a woman’s right to abort a pregnancy. Felicia is a democrat; therefore, she must be pro-choice.

Back to Logical Fallacies Red Herring A red herring is a stinky fish, often

Back to Logical Fallacies Red Herring A red herring is a stinky fish, often used to throw dogs off a trail. As a logical fallacy, a red herrings is when you make an argument that does not relate to the issue at hand in an effort to lead your reader off the actual topic. 40 The school newspaper should not be protected by the 1 st Amendment. The advisor is irresponsible and the students like to play with spinny chairs.

Back to categories Literary & Figurative Devices Imagery Personification Allusion Simile Apostrophe Symbolism Metaphor

Back to categories Literary & Figurative Devices Imagery Personification Allusion Simile Apostrophe Symbolism Metaphor

Back to literary devices Imagery Using concrete language to create sensory details. Frequently visual

Back to literary devices Imagery Using concrete language to create sensory details. Frequently visual images. Also: Smell Taste Touch Sound 42 Here and there, where the vaporish clouds had rolled apart to reveal a clump of trees or a bare, jagged, fang-like snag of rocks, the reverberations of their haunting melody sang out like a choir of brass in an orchestra. Henry Miller calls on concrete imagery to create a sense of mysterious beauty for his setting, the Greek island of Corfu.

Back to literary devices Allusion A reference, usually subtle or indirect, to another work

Back to literary devices Allusion A reference, usually subtle or indirect, to another work of art or literature Most common are Biblical allusions, references to the characters and stories of the Bible 43 In Ayn Rand’s Anthem Equality renames himself Prometheus when he discovers the value of the self and the word “ego. ” The name Prometheus alludes to Greek mythology and suggests the character’s ability to deliver new knowledge to the masses, even at the risk of offending the gods, which the Greek Prometheus did by brining fire from Mt. Olympus to humans.

Back to literary devices Simile 44 In the early afternoon it was A comparison

Back to literary devices Simile 44 In the early afternoon it was A comparison of one always quiet, the whole place thing (character, event, object, setting) tossing slowly in tropical with something it is repose, as if the building not. itself swung on a miraculous hammock. . . Comparison uses “like” or “as” to • from Americana by Don De. Lillo indicate similarity. De. Lillo emphasizes the relaxed, post-lunch atmosphere of the office by comparing the feeling to that of swinging on a hammock.

Back to literary devices Metaphor An association of one thing (character, event, object, setting)

Back to literary devices Metaphor An association of one thing (character, event, object, setting) with something it is not. Says one thing IS another. Does not say it is similar or like. . . 45 The moon is full tonight an illustration for sheet music, an image in Matthew Arnold glimmering on the English Channel, or a ghost over a smoldering battlefield in one of the history plays from “Moon” by Billy Collins gives the reader as sense of the moon’s mystery and artistic quality by associating it with other images, particularly that of a ghost over a battlefield.

Back to literary devices Personification Assigning human or human-like qualities to nonhuman and inanimate

Back to literary devices Personification Assigning human or human-like qualities to nonhuman and inanimate objects. Through one of the broken panes I heard the rain impinge upon the earth, the fine incessant needles of water playing in the sodden beds. from “Araby” by James Joyce adds life, perhaps even willpower, to the rain by choosing the action verb “playing” instead of falling or plunging 46

Back to literary devices Apostrophe Similar to personification Addressing or speaking to inanimate objects

Back to literary devices Apostrophe Similar to personification Addressing or speaking to inanimate objects as if they are human 47 Douglass speaks to the sailboats as if they are free men, comparing them to himself, a slave contemplating escape. “You are loosed from your moorings, and are free; I am fast in my chains, and am a slave! You move merrily before the gentle gale, and I sadly before the bloody whip! You are freedom’s softwinged angels, that fly round the world; I am confined in bands of iron!” from Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass by Frederick Douglass

Back to literary devices Symbolism The use of a physical object, character, or setting

Back to literary devices Symbolism The use of a physical object, character, or setting to represent an abstract idea or to parallel a character. Colors can also be symbolic Allegory: when a story consists of a series of symbols and is symbolic in itself GREEN with 48 ENVY = KNOWLEDGE

Back to categories Syntax Length Simple Compound Complex Declarative Imperative Interrogative Exclamatory Syntax devices

Back to categories Syntax Length Simple Compound Complex Declarative Imperative Interrogative Exclamatory Syntax devices

Sentence length The average sentence ranges from 12 -20 words. Sentences that are significantly

Sentence length The average sentence ranges from 12 -20 words. Sentences that are significantly shorter or longer than that average range might imply rhetorical intent. 50 Long sentences: Tend to imply elaboration and increased complexity Might suit a more academic or educated audience But could imply unpunctuated rambling Tend to slow pacing Pacing is the rate at which an author’s prose flow. A faster pace implies intensity, whereas slower pacing might imply contentment or calm or might serve as contrast to a building pace/intensity.

Sentence Length Example DURING the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in

Sentence Length Example DURING the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in the autumn of the year, when the clouds hung oppressively low in the heavens, had been passing alone, on horseback, through a singularly dreary tract of country, and at length found myself, as the shades of the evening drew on, within view of the melancholy House of Usher. from Edgar Allen Poe’s “Fall of the House of Usher” 51

Back to syntax Sentence length Short sentences: Suggest simplicity Emphasize a definitive, blunt point,

Back to syntax Sentence length Short sentences: Suggest simplicity Emphasize a definitive, blunt point, esp. in the context of longer sentences. In succession, tend to increase pacing. The same is true, perhaps moreso, of series of short clauses and phrases within sentences. 52

Sentence Length Example They should've buried Lance Armstrong this time. They had him laid

Sentence Length Example They should've buried Lance Armstrong this time. They had him laid out like a yard sale on a Pyrenees road. Had him sick, white-mouthed and dizzy. Had him riding in the weeds, riding borrowed bikes and cracked bikes. Hell, once they had him carrying his bike. Had him scabbed and swollen, hip throbbing, saddle sores mounting, out of water and luck and hope. But they didn't bury him. Couldn't. 53

Sentence complexity Simple sentences Sentences containing one independent clause--that is one subject and one

Sentence complexity Simple sentences Sentences containing one independent clause--that is one subject and one predicate. Tend to imply simple ideas. 54 Jonah ate cake. Hiding beneath his bed, Jonah devoured glorious mounds of birthday cake.

Sentence complexity Compound sentences Contain two independent clauses, that is two sets of subject/predicate

Sentence complexity Compound sentences Contain two independent clauses, that is two sets of subject/predicate pairings. Two clauses are combined with: 55 comma + conjunction semicolon Show relationships between ideas Jonah ate cake, and Betty nibbled on carrots. Hiding beneath his bed, Jonah devoured glorious mounds of birthday cake, but his mother could not find him.

Back to syntax Sentence complexity Complex sentences 56 An independent clause with one or

Back to syntax Sentence complexity Complex sentences 56 An independent clause with one or more dependent clauses. Tend to imply complex ideas. Show relationships between ideas Dependent/subordi nate clause receives less significance than main clause. Jonah snuck upstairs to eat cake when no one was looking. Because his parents restricted his diet 364 days per year, Jonah devoured glorious mounds of birthday cake beneath the safe confines of his bed.

Types of sentences Declarative Statements of fact Implies an assertion of knowledge. Most common

Types of sentences Declarative Statements of fact Implies an assertion of knowledge. Most common sentence type. “Marmeladov fell silent, as though his voice had failed him. ” 57 Imperative Statements that command or instruct Often implies speaker’s authority, superiority, certainty or command over audience. Often “you” is understood subject. “Do me a favor, don’t speak of it” examples quoted from Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment

Back to syntax Types of sentences Interrogative Questions May imply uncertainty, investigation, or range

Back to syntax Types of sentences Interrogative Questions May imply uncertainty, investigation, or range of possibility. May be rhetorical “Who am I to help anyone? Do I have any right to help? Let them all gobble each other alive--what is it to me? ” Exclamatory Sentences that exclaim (and tend to be punctuated with exclamation marks!) Implies zeal, enthusiasm, vigor, intensity. “Now is the kingdom of reason and light and. . . and will and strength. . . and now we shall see! Now we shall cross swords!” 58 examples quoted from Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment

r e th Back to syntax o d an Syntax Devices of comparison Interrogative

r e th Back to syntax o d an Syntax Devices of comparison Interrogative devices 59 Devices of repetition Devices of distinction Devices of exaggeration

Back to syntax devices Syntax devices of comparison 60 Analogy Antithesis Juxtaposition Oxymoron Parody

Back to syntax devices Syntax devices of comparison 60 Analogy Antithesis Juxtaposition Oxymoron Parody Contrast

Back to comparison Analogy An explicit comparison between two things (events, ideas, people, etc.

Back to comparison Analogy An explicit comparison between two things (events, ideas, people, etc. ) Purpose is to further a line of reasoning or allow audience to associate recognizable traits of compared item with the item being discussed. . 61 “Our men in uniform are like the college football players. While the struggle is impending, they are observing the rules of training that they may be fit to fight. But when the game has been won, the temptation to break training and make up for the restraints of the past months and years will be a mighty one. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. War Campaign Address

Back to comparison Antithesis A contrasting of opposing ideas in adjacent (usually parallel) phrases,

Back to comparison Antithesis A contrasting of opposing ideas in adjacent (usually parallel) phrases, clauses or sentences The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here” Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address 62

Back to comparison Juxtaposition When two contrasting things (ideas, words, images) are placed beside

Back to comparison Juxtaposition When two contrasting things (ideas, words, images) are placed beside each other for comparison “. . . A mango tree on broadway. . . ” Meena Alexander 63

Back to comparison Oxymoron Two words with contrary or apparently contradictory meanings occurring next

Back to comparison Oxymoron Two words with contrary or apparently contradictory meanings occurring next to each other, which evoke some measure of truth “Safe sex--now there’s an oxymoron. That’s like tactical nuke or adult male. ” Tim Curry in Lover’s Knot 64

Back to comparison Parody A humorous imitation of a work of art or style

Back to comparison Parody A humorous imitation of a work of art or style of an artist, often in an effort to mock it. Space Balls=Star Wars Scary Movie=Scream (and other horror films) Austin Powers trilogy=James Bond films 65

Back to comparison Contrast A general term for the use of images, words, ideas,

Back to comparison Contrast A general term for the use of images, words, ideas, or characters that serve as opposites to each other. Use of contrast tends to emphasize the item being contrasted. 66

Back to syntax devices Syntax Devices of Repetition 67 Text Epistrophe Anaphora

Back to syntax devices Syntax Devices of Repetition 67 Text Epistrophe Anaphora

Back to devices of repetition Repeated use of any word, phrase, image, or idea

Back to devices of repetition Repeated use of any word, phrase, image, or idea used to emphasize or elaborate upon the idea. 68

Back to devices of repetition Epistrophe Repetition of final word or group of words

Back to devices of repetition Epistrophe Repetition of final word or group of words in successive phrases or clauses 69 “I said you’re afraid to bleed. [As] long as the white man sent you to Korea, you bled. He sent you to Germany, you bled. He sent you to the South Pacific to fight the Japanese, you bled. You bleed for white people. But when it comes time to seeing your own churches being bombed and little black girls being murdered, you haven’t got no blood. ” Malcolm X, Message to the Grassroots

Back to devices of repetition Anaphora Repetition of initial word or group of words

Back to devices of repetition Anaphora Repetition of initial word or group of words in successive phrases or clauses 70 “To raise a happy, healthy, and hopeful child, it takes a family; it takes teachers; it takes clergy; it takes business people; it takes community leaders; it takes those who protect our health and safety. It takes all of us. ” Hillary Clinton, 1996 Democratic National Convention

Back to syntax devices Syntax Devices of Distinction 71 Parallelism Asyndeton Polysyndeton Distinctio Enumeration

Back to syntax devices Syntax Devices of Distinction 71 Parallelism Asyndeton Polysyndeton Distinctio Enumeration Apposition Periodic sentence

Back to devices of distinction Parallelism 72 A means of arranging a series of

Back to devices of distinction Parallelism 72 A means of arranging a series of related words, phrases or clauses in which each item in the series is grammatically equal. Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty. ” John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address

Back to devices of distinction Asyndeton A series of words or phrases not separated

Back to devices of distinction Asyndeton A series of words or phrases not separated by normally occurring conjunctions (and, or, yet, but, so) Emphasis added to series, esp. to final item in series. We use words like honor, code, loyalty. We use these words as the backbone of a life defending something. You use them as a punch line. delivered by Jack Nicholson, A Few Good Men 73

Back to devices of distinction Polysyndeton Deliberate and excessive use of conjunctions (and, but,

Back to devices of distinction Polysyndeton Deliberate and excessive use of conjunctions (and, but, yet, or, so) in series of words, phrases or clauses Tends to isolate and add impact to each item in list Tends to emphasize abundance of items “In years gone by, there were in every community men and women who spoke the language of duty and morality and loyalty and obligation. ” 74 William F. Buckley

Back to devices of distinction Periodic sentence Sentence in which the most important idea

Back to devices of distinction Periodic sentence Sentence in which the most important idea (of the sentence) occurs at the end. Places key idea or term foremost in audience’s mind, thus emphasizing that idea. 75

Back to devices of distinction Distinctio Explicit definition of or elaboration upon the meaning

Back to devices of distinction Distinctio Explicit definition of or elaboration upon the meaning of a word or set of words set off by an introductory reference: “by X I mean” “which is to say that” “that is” Tends to isolate and add impact to each item in list Tends to emphasize abundance of items 76 “I’ve been in football my life, really, and I want to say this-that it’s a great game, and it’s a Spartan type of game. I mean by that it takes Spartan qualities in order to be a part of it, to play it. Vince Lombardi

Back to devices of distinction Enumeration To enumerate The listing or detailing of the

Back to devices of distinction Enumeration To enumerate The listing or detailing of the parts of something. “We formed in 1979, June, in Washington D. C. the Moral Majority, with a handful of people. . . which has grown now to over a hundred thousand priests and rabbis and pastors and blacks and whites and young and old and all kinds. ” What other device is at work in this example? 77

Back to devices of distinction Apposition Use of an appositive, a noun or noun

Back to devices of distinction Apposition Use of an appositive, a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun Adjacent nouns or noun phrases with one elaborating on the other 78 I, Barbara Jordan, am a keynote speaker. Barbara Jordan, 1976 Democratic Convention Address

Back to syntax devices Syntax devices of exaggeration Apotheosis 79 Euphemism Understatement Hyperbole

Back to syntax devices Syntax devices of exaggeration Apotheosis 79 Euphemism Understatement Hyperbole

Back to devices of distinction Apotheosis When a character or thing is elevated to

Back to devices of distinction Apotheosis When a character or thing is elevated to such a high status that it appears godlike To apotheosize is to deify in literature Emphasizes/exaggerates traits of character Oscar Schindler rose up, as if from death, hovering above the weakened workers, and from him shone an ethereal light, which all would follow as if salvation depended on it. 80

Back to devices of distinction Euphemism A mild or pleasant sounding expression used to

Back to devices of distinction Euphemism A mild or pleasant sounding expression used to convey an unpleasant idea Tends to mollify the intensity and disguise negative connotation of charged terms The community whispered behind her back that she was in a family way. 81

Back to devices of distinction Understatement When an author assigns less significance to an

Back to devices of distinction Understatement When an author assigns less significance to an event or thing than it deserves. Frequently used for humorous effect Hurricane Floyd drizzled on Eastern North Carolina, sprinkling the trees and flowers with new life. 82

Back to devices of distinction Hyperbole Intentional exaggeration for rhetorical effect Tends to intensify

Back to devices of distinction Hyperbole Intentional exaggeration for rhetorical effect Tends to intensify or exaggerate significance of item being exaggerated. Frequently used for emotion (or pathetic, as in pathos) appeal. “Why you got scars and knots on your head from the top of your head to the bottom of your feet. And every one of those scars is evidence against the American white man. 83

Back to syntax devices Interrogative Syntax Devices Rhetorical question 84 Hypophora

Back to syntax devices Interrogative Syntax Devices Rhetorical question 84 Hypophora

Back to Interrogative Devices Rhetorical question Sentence which asks a question, not for the

Back to Interrogative Devices Rhetorical question Sentence which asks a question, not for the purpose of further discussion, but to assert or deny an answer implicitly A question whose answer is obvious or implied. A question for argument “Until someone can prove the unborn child is not a life, shouldn’t we give it the benefit of the doubt and assume it is? ” Ronald Reagan 85

Back to Interrogative Devices Hypophora Figure of reasoning in which one or more questions

Back to Interrogative Devices Hypophora Figure of reasoning in which one or more questions is/are asked and then answered, by the same speaker Raising and responding to one’s own question(s) 86 “When the enemy struck on that June day of 1950, what did America do? It did what it always has done in all its times of peril. It appealed to the heroism of its youth. ” Dwight D. Eisenhower, “I Shall Go to Korea”

Back to categories Tone and Style Tone definition Tone words Humor

Back to categories Tone and Style Tone definition Tone words Humor

Back to Tone The attitude an author conveys toward his subject, or toward characters

Back to Tone The attitude an author conveys toward his subject, or toward characters or events 88

Back to Tone Words 89 Angry Celebratory Pedantic Conceited Whimsical Ironic Sarcastic Enraged Surreal

Back to Tone Words 89 Angry Celebratory Pedantic Conceited Whimsical Ironic Sarcastic Enraged Surreal Euphemistic Arrogant

Back to Tone Humor Authors may use humor to convey tone Humor can take

Back to Tone Humor Authors may use humor to convey tone Humor can take many forms Verbal wit Mockery Slapstick The ridiculous The grotesque 90

Back to categories Structure and types of argument Toulmin Model Deductive Classical Rogerian Inductive

Back to categories Structure and types of argument Toulmin Model Deductive Classical Rogerian Inductive

Back to Structures Toulmin Model Claim: Assertion or conclusion speaker intends to prove Data:

Back to Structures Toulmin Model Claim: Assertion or conclusion speaker intends to prove Data: Evidence supporting the claim. Also called reasons Informalthat model for logical argumentation developed by Warrant: Assumption connects Stephen the data with the claim Toulmin. Acknowledges that logic is based on PROBABILITY more than CERTAINTY. Consists of three parts 92

Toulmin Model Claim: Tina may vote in the next election. Data: Tina is an

Toulmin Model Claim: Tina may vote in the next election. Data: Tina is an eighteen-year-old citizen of the US. Warrant: US citizens eighteen and older are permitted to vote in elections. 93

Back to Structures Deductive see The Informed Argument, p. 134 Developing an argument from

Back to Structures Deductive see The Informed Argument, p. 134 Developing an argument from broad, general truth to a specific conclusion General truth Specific details 94 Go to Deductive Logic

Back to Structures Inductive see The Informed Argument, p. 132 Drawing a conclusion based

Back to Structures Inductive see The Informed Argument, p. 132 Drawing a conclusion based on evidence presented. Specific evidence is presented first. A conclusion of general truth is drawn based on evidence. Consider these suggestions: 95 Arrange evidence so that reader anticipates the same Specific details conclusion you wish to draw. Consider how your evidence will affect your reader. Decide how much evidence to use. Interpret/explain the evidence to your audience. Don’t wait for them to do it. General truth

Classical Arrangement Introduction: Capture reader’s attention, introduce issues, urge audience to consider care you

Classical Arrangement Introduction: Capture reader’s attention, introduce issues, urge audience to consider care you are about to present Background: Present/narrate key events behind your case, focus on presenting information, so audience will understand the case Proposition: Divide information portion of argument from reasoning part, outline major points to be followed, state position, indicate lines rest of argument will follow Proof: Present heart of argument, make your case, discuss reasons and cite evidence to support evidence Refutation: Anticipate and refute opposing views by showing errors or explaining flaws in logic 96 Conclusion: Summarize more important points, make final appeal to values and feelings to leave audience favorably disposed toward your case

Back to Structures Rogerian see Informed Argument, pp. 127 -132 Carl Rogers Psychotherapist, focused

Back to Structures Rogerian see Informed Argument, pp. 127 -132 Carl Rogers Psychotherapist, focused on listening for understanding Influenced a more open-minded approach to rhetoric Contrasts tendencies to: 97 Avoid opponent’s position altogether Assert own claims rather than seeking truth Assert first and anticipate opponent’s argument later Focuses more on concession than refutation Go to Anticipated Argument

Introduction: State the problem you hope to resolve, expressing need for solution, desire for

Introduction: State the problem you hope to resolve, expressing need for solution, desire for positive (win/win) change Summary of Opposing Viewpoints: Make accurate and objective statement of opponent’s views, reveal attitude of fairness and openmindedness Rogerian Statement of Understanding: Concede acceptance of opponent’s views, esp. that they be valid under certain circumstances, Statement of Your Position: Explain your own position/solution to the problem Statement of Contexts: Explain the context/situation under which your assertion is best, show merit of your position within those contexts, limit yourself to those contexts and avoid absolutes 98 Statement of Benefits: Appeal to interests/values of those beginning to adopt your position, show benefits of your solution, conclude with positive message