Tenses Simple present Simple past Present perfect Past

Tenses Simple present Simple past Present perfect Past perfect Future Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 1

Why change tenses? We owe it to the scientific community to declare, by the choice of tense, whether we report established facts or new, previously unpublished data. Verb tense expresses the time of an event or action. Time and how it is expressed in writing is very important to English readers. The English language has twelve different tenses. In this session, we will review the meaning of verb tenses relevant to scientific writing. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 2

The Simple Present Tense Expresses a habit or often repeated action. Adverbs of frequency such as, often, seldom, sometimes, never, etc. are used with this tense. She goes to work everyday. They always eat lunch together. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 3

The Simple Present Tense This tense also expresses general truths or facts that are timeless. Snow falls in the December in Minnesota. Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 4

The Simple Past We use the simple past to indicate exactly when an action or event took place in the past. I visited my sister yesterday. We went out to dinner last night. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 5

The Simple Past The simple past is used to describe actions and/or events that are now completed and no longer true in the present. I attended MJC in 1998. (I no longer attend MJC. ) I saw a movie every weekend when I was a teenager. (I don’t see movies very much anymore. ) Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 6

The Present Perfect The present perfect is used to talk about an event that began in the past and continues up to the present. He has lived in Modesto for two years. (He began living in Modesto two years ago and he still lives there. ) Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 7

The Present Perfect The present perfect is also used to talk about an event that was completed in the past, but the specific time of the event is not important. I have seen that movie before. He has already visited Vietnam. (Specific dates and times are not mentioned. ) Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 8

The Past Perfect This tense describes completed events that took place in the past before another past event. had received it had eaten my friend stopped by The Titanic had received many warnings before it hit the iceberg. I had already eaten when my friend stopped by to visit Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 9

The Future Will and be + going + to are often used to describe future actions. Thomas will graduate in June. Maria is going to go to Mexico next week. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 10

Abstract: generally, use the simple past (or for a concise introductory phrase the present perfect); for general statements and facts use the present tense. Introduction: use a mixture of present and past tense; the present tense is applied when you are talking about something that is always true; the past tense is used for earlier research efforts, either by your own or by another group. If the time of demonstration is unknown or not important, use the present perfect. For the concluding statements of your introduction use the simple past. you may use the past perfect, when you talk about something that was true in the past but is no longer so. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 11

Methods: here you generally use the passive voice in the simple past. Results: simple past and present tense should be employed here; when you refer to figures and tables you use the present tense, since they continue to exist in your paper; you can mix active and passive voice. Discussion: use the simple past for your own findings and the perfect tense for cited information; the present tense is also acceptable, if you prefer that one (in such statements as ‘We can conclude that …’. Conclusions and Further work: use present perfect to make clear that your statements still hold at the time of reading; for further work the future tense (or the present) is acceptable. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 12

Tenses Typically Occurring in a Paper or Report SECTION PREDOMINANT TENSE Abstract / Summary Past Introduction Mostly present tense ( established facts , previously published data ) Materials / Methods Past Results Past Discussion / Conclusions Mixture of past and present , sometimes future tense Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 13

Passive/Active Am/is/are Was/were Have/has been + PP Had been Will be Rule of thumb: 60% active/ 40% passive Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 14

Parallelism Clause: Subject + Verb And or but so yet Clause , 5 Clause We got some gas, and then we headed off to Omaha. Lynn’s job was transferred, so she moved from Minneapolis. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 15

Parallelism Incorrect : We developed this novel laxative for patients with hemorrhoids, fissures, and after surgery. Correct : We developed this novel laxative for patients with hemorrhoids and fissures, and for patients who have undergone surgery. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 16

Parallelism Paired conjunctions: Both X and Y Either X or Y Neither X nor Y Not (only) X but (also) Y What is wrong? The mechanical response of heart muscles depends on both the absolute osmolal increase and on the species studied. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 17

Parallelism Correct: The mechanical response of heart muscles depends on both the absolute osmolal increase and on the species studied. What is wrong? She is not only a teacher but also she is an engineer. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 18

Parallelism Correct: She is not only a teacher but also an engineer. Semicolon (; ) Clause ; Clause I like to swim ; she likes to sing. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 19

Parallelism Clause ; however, ; therefore, Clause ; nevertheless, ; then, I had an idea, and the subject was appealing; however, the professor squelched my interest. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 20

Run-on Sentences An independent clause is a group of words that could be a complete sentence all by itself. A run-on sentence is one in which independent clauses have been run together without punctuation (a period, semicolon, or comma). MAIN CLAUSE + Ø + MAIN CLAUSE. Run-on: We got some gas then, we headed off to Omaha. How to correct a run-on sentence: 1. Period + Capital Letter: We got some gas. Then, we headed off to Omaha. 2. Semicolon: We got some gas; then, we headed off to Omaha. 3. Comma + Coordinating Conjunction (, 5): We got some gas, and then, we headed off to Omaha. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 21

Comparison Two Common Problems in Writing Comparisons 1. Overuse of “Compared To” In comparisons containing a comparative term, such as “higher, ” “greater, ” “lower, ” “less, ” the accompanying term should be “than, ” not “compared to. ” We found a higher KD at 37°C compared to 25°C. We found a higher KD at 37°C than at 25°C. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 22

Comparison 2. Comparison of Unlike Things Incorrect: These results are similar to previous studies. Correct: These results are similar to the results of previous studies. Correct: These results are similar to those of previous studies. What is wrong? Incorrect: The blood pressure of group A was higher than group B. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 23

The Relative Pronouns “Which” and “That” The books that (or which) provide exercises are particularly helpful. The substances which (or that) performed best in the screening test were those that had a simple chemical structure. Restrictive: For camping, the children need clothes that are washable. Nonrestrictive: For camping, the children need sturdy shoes, which are expensive. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 24

The Relative Pronoun “Which“ referring to the previous sentence Some books provide exercises, which is particularly helpful. The substances with a simple chemical structure performed best in the screening test, which was an unexpected finding. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 25

Dangling Modifiers Using the survey data, the effects of education on job satisfaction were examined. (Who is using the data? Implied subject = we/researchers; grammatical subject = the effects) Correction Using the survey data, the researchers examined the effects of education on job satisfaction. After preparing the samples, our focus was on collecting the data. (Who did the preparing? Implied subject = we/ researchers; grammatical subject = our focus) Correction After preparing the samples, we focused on collecting the data. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 26

Dangling Modifiers To investigate the relationship, a series of experiments were designed. (Who is going to investigate? Implied subject = we/researchers; grammatical subject = a series) Correction We designed a series of experiments to investigate the relationship. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 27

Dangling Modifiers Dangling: Before adding the compound, it was determined that the solution's p. H was 6. 4 Correction: Before the addition of the compound, it was determined that the solution's p. H was 6. 4. Before adding the compound, we determined that the solution's p. H was 6. 4 Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 28

Punctuation Colon (: ) and Semicolon (; ) A colon is used when a list or explanation follows. The colon comes at a point in the sentence where the sentence could come to a complete stop. I’m going to tell you the names of my favorite breakfast foods: cornflakes, oatmeal, grits and gravy, and yogurt on toast. A semicolon is used to separate two or more related clauses provided each clause forms a full sentence. There a number of test kits available; the standard products are used in most cases. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 29

Comma (, ) Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, yet, so) to separate two independent clauses. I will show you the paper about which I was speaking, but it is not as useful as I first thought. To separate subclauses: Professor Brown, who is in charge of recruiting for the University, said that the latest estimates were higher than those for this time last year. To separate appositive: All samples were collected from farms in Hamedan, an Iranian western province. To separate all items in a list except for the last two: The following items may be imported duty free into Azania: Animals, cereals, plants, fruit, trees, legumes and nuts. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 30

Comma (, ) Use a comma to set off introductory elements. Anxious about the upcoming winter, settlers began to bicker among themselves about supplies. In the winter of 1644, nearly half the settlers died of starvation or exposure. If the introductory element is brief and the sentence can be read easily without the comma, it can be omitted. In 1649 the settlers abandoned their initial outpost. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 31

Paragraph ORGANIZATION Topic Sentences and Supporting Sentences General Approach: Overview First, Then Details (Sentences should not be left too general; they should be clarified and narrowed down in the following sentences) Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 32

There are three different theories put forward for the very slow relaxation of catch muscles of molluscs. One theory holds that catch is due to some unusual property of myosin in these muscles that produces a slow rate of detachment. In this theory, paramyosin would have no special role beyond that of providing the long scaffolding on which the myosin is positioned as well as the mechanical strength for the large tensions developed. The second theory holds that tension is developed by actin-myosin interaction but is maintained by paramyosin interactions. Because thick filaments are of limited length, interaction would have to occur through fusion of thick filaments. A third theory, to which I subscribe, pictures a structural change in the paramyosin core affecting the rate of breaking of myosin-actin links at the filament surface. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 33

Continuity is the smooth flow of ideas from sentence to sentence (and from paragraph to paragraph). The essence of continuity is a clear relationship between every sentence and the sentence before it. To create continuity, special techniques can be used. The most important techniques for creating continuity are Repeating key terms exactly Using transitions to indicate relationships between ideas Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 34

Repeating key terms exactly Digitalis increases the contractility of the mammalian heart. This change in inotropic state is a result of changes in calcium flux through the muscle cell membrane. What is “inotropic state”? How does it relate to the previous sentence? The answer is that “contractility” and “inotropic state” mean the same thing. If no difference in meaning is intended, why use two different terms and risk confusing some readers? Revision Digitalis increases the contractility of the mammalian heart. This increased contractility is a result of changes in calcium flux through the muscle cell membrane. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 35

Do not change the key words To determine which collagenase concentration is the most appropriate for our purposes, we tested collagenase B (Boehringer Mannheim, Indianapolis, IN) dissolved at different concentrations in the perfusion medium. First we perfused mouse liver with a medium containing the same quantity of collagenase B as the medium used to perfuse rat liver (70 mg enzyme per liter of perfusion medium). Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 36

Transition Words Transition words are standard terms that indicate standard logical relationships between ideas. Examples include “therefore” and “thus” (conclusions), “for example” (example), “first” (sequence), “in addition” (addition), “in contrast” (contrast), and “however” (difference), similarly, finally, on the other hand, etc. Transition words within a sentence The lymphocytes that infiltrate the alveolar walls in this rejection phase are likely to be conveyed by the blood because they infiltrate all alveolar walls synchronously all over the lungs. Both of these high-density-lipoprotein-associated proteins are initially synthesized as proteins and therefore undergo both co- and posttranslational proteolysis. Although individual residues in the repeated-sequence blocks in the core have diverged, the patterns of amino acids are identical. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 37

Transition words between sentences By widening our focus to the entire trachea, we were able to see that most ganglion cell bodies (72%) are located in the neural plexuses associated with the trachealis muscle and submucosal glands, and only a small proportion (28%) are located along the longitudinal nerve trunks. Furthermore, we were able to see that most of the ganglia in the superficial muscle and gland plexuses contain only 1– 4 ganglion cell bodies (average, 2. 8 ganglion cell bodies). Thus, previously reported ganglia along the longitudinal nerve trunk that contain 10– 20 ganglion cell bodies are not typical of most tracheal ganglia. Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 38

The Fog Index (F) F = 0. 4 (L + P) “L” is the average number of words per sentence, and P is the average number of polysyllables per 100 words of text. (A polysyllable is a word with three or more syllables. ) 12<F<18 Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 39

Fog Index Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk Reading level by grade 17 College graduate 16 College senior 15 College junior 14 College sophomore 13 College freshman 12 High school senior 11 High school junior 10 High school sophomore 9 High school freshman 8 Eighth grade 7 Seventh grade 6 Sixth grade 40

Example Fog Index = 33: “In order to eliminate the possibility of errors occurring in the time charges relating to engineering jobs through transposition of numbers or typing errors, each of the Division Planning Offices should set up a file of time cards showing all authorized project numbers and make a daily check of the charges on all time sheets forwarded to the Accounting Department to be sure that only authorized numbers are used. ” (1 sentence, 69 words, 13 polysyllables) Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk Fog Index = 11: “It is easy to transpose digits and make typing errors when entering project numbers. We suggest each Division Planning Office set up a file of time cards showing all authorized project numbers. Then all charges should be checked each day before sending time sheets to the Accounting Department. ” (3 sentences. 48 words, 5 polysyllables) 41

To reduce the Fog Index, you must do two things: (1) reduce the length of your sentences (by breaking long sentences into shorter ones), and (2) get rid of as many complicated words as possible (by using simpler words instead). Best of Luck! Building Blocks of Writing, Mohammad Karimi Muhamadkarimi@yahoo. co. uk 42