T 08 consequences Duty Ethics Deontological Teleological Right

T 08. 後果 (consequences)：預測未來 責任 (Duty) 責任論的 倫理 Ethics Deontological 目的論的 Teleological 好行為 Right action 權利 (Rights) 做好 Being good 品行 (Character) 後果 Consequences 5 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011 關係 (Relationships)

T 08. 後果 (consequences)： 預測未來 n 6 This approach to ethics does not presume that any action is intrinsically right or wrong, but proposes that the action which will likely have the best consequences is “right”. Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

T 08. 後果 (consequences)： 預測未來 8. 1 n 8. 2 n 8. 3 n 8. 4 n 8. 5 n 7 Utilitarianism animal suffering cost-benefit analysis biocentric consequentialism scientific consequences Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

8. 1 Utilitarianism David Hume (1711 -1776) first proposed a theory of utilitarianism, following by Jeremy Bentham (1748 -1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806 -1873). Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. n n 8 It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. According to the greatest happiness principle, … the ultimate end, with reference to and for the sake of which all other things are desirable, is an existence exempt as free as possible from pain, and as rich as possible in enjoyments. Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Problems 1. How happiness or pleasure is to be measured? 2. No action is prohibited as wrong? 3. Concerns future generations? 4. We cannot know the consequences of acting. Our prediction are uncertain, we are ignorant of the consequences. 9 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Rule and preference utilitarianism n n n Alternative forms of utilitarian reasoning, now known as act utilitarianism, have been devised to try to deal with these difficulties in predicting consequences. Rule utilitarianism relies on past events for consequential evidence of what an ethical rule should be. Preference utilitarianism assesses the desires of those likely to be affected by a decision, in order to predict whether or not the decision will lead to consequences that yield more happiness. 10 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

8. 2 animal suffering n n n Bentham was the first utilitarian to express concern about the suffering of animals. Among contemporary philosophers Peter Singer is the leading advocate for including animals in consequential calculations of pleasure and pain, and for ending the tyranny of humans over animals. The animal liberation movement is not saying that all lives are of equal worth or that all interests of humans and other animals are to be given equal weight, no matter what those interest may be. 11 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Peter Singer n n n Singer argues that the suffering of animals used in research generally outweighs the benefits for human beings, and he advocated vegetarianism because factory farming causes unnecessary animal suffering. Most people are surprised to learn that in the US alone about thirty-seven million cattle are slaughtered each year food. 12 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Assessing pain n n There are difficulties with including animal suffering in a utilitarian calculation of what actions will yield the greatest happiness. Mary Midgley suggest that moral consideration is justified only when we recognize consciousness in an animal. Recognizing an animal as conscious like us, she argues, gives us a reason to include it in our moral community. We have a duty to ensure that the feelings of conscious animals are considered. 13 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Wild animals n n n Do we have a duty to protect wild animals from causing more suffering by preying on one another? Singer argues that animal suffering is an ethical reason for not eating meat, but he also states that we have no responsibility to interfere in nature to protect animals from one another. Rolston agrees with Singer’s conclusion, but for the different reasons. n 14 Pain and pleasure are not he only criteria of value, not even the principal ones. Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Rolston n n Rolston agrees with Midgley that our relationship with animals leads to duties that recognize intrinsic values. We have a duty to minimizing the suffering of domesticated animals in our care. n n 15 But we do not have the same duty to try to reduce the suffering of wild animals in their natural habitats. Any suffering that we impose on wild animals should be comparable to their suffering in nature. Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

8. 3 cost-benefit analysis n n n The commercial value of medicinal substances in tropical forests is often greater than the value of using the land for agriculture after logging the forest. To ensure fiscal accountability in the US, the National Policy Act of 1969 mandates cost-benefit analysis for all federal projects related to the environment. Nonmarket values, limited knowledge, economic discounting to estimate future costs and benefits. 16 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Nonmarket values n n n Nonmarket values involving ecosystems include the depletion of nonrenewable resources, the loss of ecosystem functions, and the extinction of species. Cost-benefit analysis also ignores human rights. n Relying on cost-benefit analysis, for instance, will characteristically require placement of toxic wastes near poor people. Our ethical presumption is the ecosystem integrity and human rights are of intrinsic worth. 17 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Limited knowledge Although it is fairly easy to assess the costs of building nuclear power plants, but very hard to know that the financial costs of storing nuclear waste safely for centuries if the power plants are built. n 萬一災變？機率？風險？代價？ n 18 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Discounting n n n In financial markets, a dollar acquired today is worth more than a dollar we will acquire in a year. n The dollar can be put in the bank, and thus be worth perhaps $1. 05 in a year. 倘若資源量無限，永不匱乏。 資源愈早開發，轉變為現金，愈有利。 19 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

8. 4 biocentric consequentialism n Singer does not rely on cost-benefit analysis in making utilitarian arguments. n n n His reasoning that our way of raising animals for food causes unnecessary suffering for these animals. Intensive animal production is a heavy use of fossil fuels and a major source of pollution of both air and water. Moral philosopher Robin Attfield agrees with Singer that ethical decisions can be made without costbenefit analysis by using reason to predict and weigh likely consequences. n 20 Biocentric consequentialism (intrinsic values) Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

State of the world n n n If the consequential benefits are significant, Attfield argues, we have a duty to adopt the practices that lead to the good state of the world. Stone argues for a pluralist approach to ethics. Our brains have evolved to think about moral issues by relying on feelings of empathy and reasoning about what is intrinsically right and good, as well as on our ability to forecast the possible consequences of our actions. 21 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

8. 5 scientific consequences n In 2001 the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization and the UN Environment Programme, n proposed that human activity was “likely” causing global warming. n In 2007, however, the panel “declared that the evidence of a warming trend is ‘unequivocal’, and that human activity has ‘very likely’ been the driving force in that change over the last 50 years”. 22 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Climate change n n The shift from “likely” to “very likely” as a scientific conclusion has strengthened the argument that governments and their citizens must take action to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. We rely on science for predictions of likely consequences, but need to keep in mind that scientific information presents a perspective on the world and does not simply reveal what is. 23 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

The limits of science n n Scientific conclusion are limited by what we know, by what we are looking for, and by how we go about it. The answers you get depend on the questions you ask. Science does not give us the whole picture, but only perspectives on it. If we describe our energy problem as a supply problem, we will likely conclude that we need to find and develop new sources of energy…… If we define our energy problem as excessive demand, we will focus on ways of reducing our energy use…. . 24 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Science is human n n Science is done by scientists, who are influenced by funding for their research, their desire to have successful careers, and their personal convictions (信念), as well as by the results of their experiments and observations. Biologist Rupert Sheldrake observes that: “The objective method is supposed to remove all psychic interests of the scientists from what they’re doing. In fact, most scientist are heavily engaged in what they’re doing if only for reason of personal ambition (野心). ” 25 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

In doing ethics n n n Scientific reports may be affected by politics. Economic interests may try to confuse the public about scientific conclusions. Scientific reports about the environment that predict the likely consequences of an action (or inaction) give us probable, possible, or uncertain outcomes. n 26 Therefore, in doing ethics we rely on empathy and critical reasoning to construct moral presumptions before drawing on science and other consequential arguments to test these presumptions. Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Worksheet for doing Environment Ethics 1. Describe the environment issue you are addressing 2. Construct an ethical presumption 3. Consider the consequences 4. Make your decision If your analysis confirms your presumption, act on it. n If not, revise your presumption before acting on it n 27 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Construct an ethical presumption Duty: to other persons, future generations, nature n Character: virtues of gratitude, integrity, frugality n Relationships: the extent of our moral community n Rights: social conditions necessary for human dignity State your reasoning as an ethical presumption. n n 28 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

Consider the consequences n List the likely consequences of acting on this presumption n Distinguish and weigh the pro and con arguments n n n Are these probable or only possible consequences? Are the long-term consequences largely uncertain? Rely on reason on assess nonmarket values. Use cost-benefit analysis for market goods. Internalize externalities in market prices. Avoid passing on costs to future generations. If the pros outweigh the cons, then the presumption is confirmed. If not, challenge the presumption. 29 Ayo Env. Ethics 2011

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