Syntax Lecture 11 Auxiliary verbs The Aspectual Auxiliaries

Syntax Lecture 11: Auxiliary verbs

The Aspectual Auxiliaries • Modal auxiliaries belong to the category I – They are in complementary distribution with tense: • * Mary could loved John – (= it was possible that Mary loved John) – They are in complementary distribution with the infinitival marker: • * I expected [Mary could to love John] – I expected [Mary could love John] – They are in complementary distribution with each other: • * Mary could might love John – It was possible that Mary might love John

The Aspectual Auxiliaries • There are other auxiliary verbs which are not in complementary distribution with any of these things (or each other): – Mary is/was flying to America – I expect [Mary to be flying to America] – Mary could be flying to America – Mary has/had flown to America – I expect [Mary to have flown to America] – Mary could have flown to America – Mary has been flying to America

Continuous be • The continuous (or progressive) form of a sentence refers to a state of affairs that started at some point before the point under discussion and will end at some point after: – This point can be now: now • I am reading – Some time in the past: • I was reading Point under discussion reading – Some point in the future: Point under discussion • I will be reading Point under discussion

Continuous be • Formally it is indicated by the presence of the auxiliary be and the inflection –ing on the verbal element following the auxiliary: – She is flying to America – She was being flown to America (inflection on main verb) (inflection on auxiliary) • This inflection is not the same as tense (category I) as they have different distributions: – She is/was flying to America – She has/had been flying to America – She flies/flew/*flying to America

Perfect have • The perfect form has a complicated semantics and can mean different things in different cases. • Two of these meanings are: – Universal perfect (state of affairs started at some point in the past and continued uninterrupted to the present • I have been a linguist since 1984 I am a linguist 1984 now – Experiential perfect (state of affairs occurred one or more times at some point between, but not including, a past date and the present) • I have written papers on linguistics since 1986. writing 1986 writing now

Perfect have • The form, like the continuous, involves an auxiliary and an inflection on the following verbal element: – I have written a paper – I have been writing a paper • Sometimes this inflection looks like past tense, but it is not tense (or of the category I) as it doesn’t have the same distribution: – She has/had dropped the ball – She could have dropped the ball – She dropped the ball (= simple past)

Aspectual forms in Combination • The perfect and the continuous can appear together • When they do, the perfect always precedes the continuous: – She has been dancing

Aspectual forms in Combination • The perfect and the continuous can appear together • When they do, the perfect always precedes the continuous: – She has been dancing – * She is having danced

The position of aspectual auxiliaries • The aspectuals seem to occupy a position between the inflection and the VP. • What is the nature of these positions?

The aspectuals are inside the VP • I always takes a VP complement • So the aspectual auxiliaries must be inside VP • They cannot be in the specifier position: – There is already a specifier (the moved subject) – There can only be one specifier • They are not adjuncts: – There can only be two of them

Aspectuals as heads • The only possibility left is that aspectual auxiliaries are heads of their own phrases. • These phrases are VPs, so the aspecuals are verbs. • The perfect aspectual verbs takes a VP complement headed by the main verb

Aspectuals as heads • The continuous aspect verb also takes a VP complement headed by the main verb.

Aspectuals as heads • The perfect aspect verb can take a VP complement headed by the continuous aspect verb • which has its own VP complement headed by the main verb.

The status of the aspectual inflections • Aspectual forms involve an auxiliary and an inflection. • How should we analyse the inflection? • There are cases when the inflection appears without the auxiliary: – Him flown to America? I don’t believe it! • He has flown to America – I watched [him mending the car] • He is mending the car • This indicates that it is the inflection which is the central part of these aspectual constructions, not the auxiliary.

Tense • Tense has the category of Inflection (I) • The agent moves to the subject position • When the main verb is able to, it moves to support the tense

Aspectual inflections • Aspectual inflections are not of the category I • They head VPs, so they have the category V • The agent moves to the subject position • When it is able to, the main verb will move to support the aspectual inflection • But this leaves the tense unsupported

Aspectual Auxiliaries • If English were Hungarian (an agglutinating language), the verb could also move to support the tense. • But English verbs can only support one inflection • Therefore, the auxiliary is inserted, as a dummy, to support the tense • ‘be’ plus ‘-ed’ is pronounced ‘was’ – John was smiling be

Which Auxiliary? • ‘be’ is inserted when the following aspectual head is continuous ‘-ing’ • ‘have’ is inserted when the following aspectual head is perfect ‘-en’ • This can be best seen when both are present in the same sentence.

Which Auxiliary? • As the main verb supports the continuous ‘-ing’, the tense and the perfect are unsupported. • Therefore two auxiliaries will be needed • ‘be’ is used to support the perfect, as the following head is ‘-ing’ • ‘have’ is used to support the tense as the following head is ‘-en’ – John had been smiling have be

Conclusion • The part of the sentence that expresses aspectual meaning is placed ‘mid-field’ between the inflection and the main VP • The aspectual elements themselves are of the category V • It is the inflections which are the elements which carry the aspectual meanings and head these phrases • The auxiliary verbs are inserted ‘dummies’ whose purpose is to support other inflections that the verb cannot because it can only support one inflection.