Supporting Materials Chapter 15 Supporting Materials l Can
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Supporting Materials Chapter 15
Supporting Materials l Can be used for clarification or proof l Can be used to support your claims l Can be used as amplification Sprague Chapter 15 2
Define Unfamiliar Words And Concepts l. A ‘logical definition’ - is a dictionary definition l Etymological definitions - root meaning of the word l Historical definitions – linked to some historical event l Operational definitions – tell how the object works Sprague Chapter 15 3
Definitions l Definition by negation – explain what the word is not l Definition by Authority – person with most credibility gets to define the term l Definition by Example – by pointing at it verbally or literally Sprague Chapter 15 4
Make Frequent Use of Examples l Use factual examples n Are sufficient examples given? n Are the examples representative? n Are negative instances accounted for? l Use hypothetical examples – not factual but it should be a likely or realistic example n Extended n Brief Sprague Chapter 15 5
Examples l Make sure your examples are not biased l Use the appropriate amount of detail n Analyze need Sprague the amount of detail you Chapter 15 6
Use Statistical Evidence l Test the accuracy of statistical evidence n Who collected the data? n Why were the data collected? n When were the data collected? n How were the data collected? Sprague Chapter 15 7
Statistical Evidence l Avoid misleading statistics n The fallacy of average n The fallacy of the unknown base n The fallacy of the atypical or arbitrary time frame l Make your statistics clear and meaningful Sprague Chapter 15 8
Draw on Testimonies from Authorities l Testimonies call on statements from other people to get our point across n Direct quotation n Paraphrase Sprague Chapter 15 9
Evaluate the Credibility of the Authorities You Cite l Does the authority have access to the necessary information? l Is the authority qualified to interpret data? Sprague Chapter 15 10
Evaluate the Credibility of the Authorities You Cite l Is the person acknowledged as an expert on this subject? l Is the authority figure free of bias and self-interest? l Do not distort quotations Sprague Chapter 15 11
Cite Your Sources Smoothly l Cite the sources of your supporting materials l Use a variety of lead-ins -- a study published in the Journal of Advertising last year said. . . ’ ‘there was an article in Newsweek magazine early this year that said. . . ‘ In an article in the New York Times in 2010. . . Sprague Chapter 15 12
Sample questions. . .
Definitions, examples, statistics and testimony all fall into what the text calls ----- for your speech. Supporting materials
Which should come first: --selecting evidence / supporting materials -- practicing delivery --setting up the basic structure of your speech --doing an audience analysis --setting up the basic structure of your speech
We refer to supporting materials as --, even though it may be impossible to ever prove a point completely. proof
In helping the audience understand our terms and ideas, a(n) ---- definition is also known as dictionary definition. logical
Reasoning Chapter 16
What is Reasoning? Reasoning is the process by which we come to understand something new, through analyzing and synthesizing what we already know. Sprague Chapter 16 19
What is Reasoning? ** This concept is the foundation for thoroughly developing a thesis. . . and for an audience’s critical evaluation of the content used to support your thesis. ** Sprague Chapter 16 20
Identify Where Reasoning is Needed to Link Points l Evidence can lead to more than one claim l People look for familiar patterns Sprague Chapter 16 21
Inductive Reasoning Collecting enough instances to establish a pattern or drawing inferences/conclusions from observations. Sprague Chapter 16 22
Inductive Reasoning l Base inferences on sufficient and representative cases l Recognize the degree of probability of your claim l Demonstrate your cost-rewards analysis l Specific-to-general approach Sprague Chapter 16 23
Deductive Reasoning Making verbal statements, or premises, according to formal rules or reasoning from generalizations to specific conclusions. Sprague Chapter 16 24
Deductive Reasoning l Finds the patterns in what you already know l In a formal deductive syllogism, the major premise sets up an absolute relationship l General-to-specific order Sprague Chapter 16 25
Deductive Reasoning l Probable premises can lead only to probable conclusions l Lay out all the premises of a deductive argument Sprague Chapter 16 26
Causal Reasoning Is the backbone of all speeches that deal with policy and problem solving and is reasoning that one cause invariably leads to one effect Sprague Chapter 16 27
Causal Reasoning l Test the validity of your causal relationships n Do the alleged cause and alleged effect occur together? n Do the alleged cause and alleged effect vary together? Sprague Chapter 16 28
Causal Reasoning l Do not simplify the relationship n Some effects have multiple causes n Some cause are also effects l Explain your causal claims fully and fairly Sprague Chapter 16 29
Reasoning by Analogy When we reason by analogy, we compare two things that can be placed in the same category Sprague Chapter 16 30
Reasoning by Analogy l Compares two things in the same category l Be sure that the two cases are similar Sprague Chapter 16 31
Reasoning by Analogy l Do not confuse a literal analogy with a figurative analogy n Literal analogy compares the members of the same category n Figurative analogy compares the members of different categories Sprague Chapter 16 32
Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies l Ad hominem – attacking the person instead of the argument l “Setting up a straw figure” – setting up a poor argument, attributing it to the other side, and refuting it. Sprague Chapter 16 33
Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies l Extending an argument to absurd lengths – goes beyond a reasonable interpretation of the original point Sprague Chapter 16 34
Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies l Slippery slope - false assumptions that if one takes a particular first step then they will automatically take other dangerous steps in the same direction. Sprague Chapter 16 35
Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies l Circular reasoning - assumes as one of its premises the very conclusion it sets out to establish l Semantic fallacy – when meanings of word shift mid argument Sprague Chapter 16 36
Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies l False dichotomy – is reasoning based on an either-or statement when the two alternatives are not mutually exclusive Sprague Chapter 16 37
Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies l Faulty reversal of an if-then statement - affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent Sprague Chapter 16 38
Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies l Hasty generalization - making a premature general conclusion l Confusing sequence with cause n Post Sprague hoc fallacy Chapter 16 39
Show How Your Reasoning Links Your Evidence to Your Claim l Organize points to show the logical relationship l Select language that shows the logical relationship Sprague Chapter 16 40
When we reason by -------, we compare two things that can be placed in the same category. analogy
Of the four patterns of reasoning, ------ is the simplest and most common, and consists of collecting enough instances to establish a pattern. Inductive reasoning
Among the various ‘reasoning fallacies, ’ ----- is attacking the person instead of the argument Ad hominem
Language and Style Chapter 17
Strive for Clear Language l Once we have realistic content that is well organized and well supported through good evidence. . . l A good speech pulls the ideas togther through a performance Sprague Chapter 17 45
Think back. . . l Three communication resources. . . l Draw on your conversation skills n Relaxed, l Draw spontaneous, etc. on your writing skills n Research l Draw on your performance skills n Timing, Sprague and evidence emotional build-up, eye contact Chapter 17 46
Strive for Clear Language l Be precise n Use the proper word n Don’t misuse your metaphor Sprague Chapter 17 47
Strive for Clear Language l Use specific and concrete language l Be economical in your language l BUT … a really good presentation has colorful, descriptive, emotive, connecting impact Sprague Chapter 17 48
Use Appropriate Language l Adapt your language to the formality of the occasion l Use jargon or slang carefully l Avoid substandard usage l Use language that is respectful and inclusive l Remember ‘dialect’ impact Sprague Chapter 17 49
Use Valid Varied Language l Use imagery l Use stylistic devices n Simile and metaphor n Personification n Hyperbole Sprague Chapter 17 50
Use Valid Varied Language l Use stylistic devices n Repetitive language or structure n Alliteration and assonance n antithesis Sprague Chapter 17 51
Use Valid Varied Language l Use fresh language l Vary the rhythm of your sentences l Avoid monotonous delivery l Avoid constant, routine voice delivery l Heightened conversation Sprague Chapter 17 52
------- is a special vocabulary used primarily within a particular group. jargon
Definitions, examples, statistics and testimony all fall into what the text calls ----- for your speech. Supporting materials
Definitions, examples, statistics and testimony all fall into what the text calls ----- for your speech. Supporting materials
Vocal Delivery Chapter 25
Speak to be Heard and Understood l Speak loud enough to be heard by the entire audience -projection l Speak at a rate your audience can follow Sprague Chapter 25 57
Speak to be Heard and Understood l Enunciate words distinctly and naturally l If you have accent or dialect issues, consider how to make useful adjustments Sprague Chapter 25 58
Use Vocal Variety l Vary your pitch l Vary your rate of speech l Pause appropriately l Vary your volume l Avoiding ‘monotone’ or ‘constant vocal pattern’ Sprague Chapter 25 59
Use Standard, Acceptable Pronunciation l Identify words that you habitually mispronounce l Check the preferred pronunciation of unfamiliar words l Examine: common words, names of places (library, okra, Colorado, Illinois. . . ) Sprague Chapter 25 60
Eliminate Distracting Vocal Characteristics l Identify problems of voice quality n Harshness n Breathiness n Nasality l Identify and denasality problems of articulation n Vocalized like) pauses (um, so, you know, n Repetitious Sprague patterns of inflection Chapter 25 61
Physical Delivery Chapter 26
Physical Delivery l Be conscious of your appearance n Manage your first impression n Dress conservatively n Dress up / no cap / jewelry? l Eliminate distracting mannerisms l Stand or sit with a relaxed but alert posture Sprague Chapter 26 63
Physical Delivery l Make only purposeful and relevant movements l Make natural gestures l Maintain eye contact l Use facial expressions to reflect tone Sprague Chapter 26 64
Attention & Interest Chapter 18
Use Appropriate Attention. Getting Techniques l Activity or movement— appropriate movement of the speaker and a lively treatment of the content that creates a feeling of something happening l Reality—references to actual people, events, and places; being specific and concrete rather than abstract Sprague Chapter 18 66
Use Appropriate Attention. Getting Techniques l Proximity—references to what is close at hand: people in the room, current events, local landmarks, and so on l Familiarity—the use of recognized examples, wellknown phrases, and commonplace situations Sprague Chapter 18 67
Use Appropriate Attention. Getting Techniques l Novelty—the opposite of the familiar: startling facts, odd turns of phrase, surprising images, and unusual combinations l Suspense—stimulation of curiosity about what will happen next through puzzles or provocative questions Sprague Chapter 18 68
Use Appropriate Attention. Getting Techniques l Conflict—pros and cons, opposing viewpoints, competing schools of thought l Humor—playful remarks, silly or exaggerated images, amusing plays on words, ironic twists of fate, entertaining stories, and the like Sprague Chapter 18 69
Use Appropriate Attention. Getting Techniques l The vital—references to things that are important to listeners, ranging from matters of survival to anything that saves them time, earns them money, or makes their life more pleasant Sprague Chapter 18 70
Use Techniques that Enliven Your Speech l Be specific and use real life examples l Keep your audience involved l Use the names of people in your audience l Refer to details in the immediate setting or from common experiences Sprague Chapter 18 71
Use Techniques that Enliven Your Speech l Actively involve your audience l Use variety and movement to energize your speech l Use humor when it is appropriate Sprague Chapter 18 72
Use Techniques that Enliven Your Speech l Look for the humor in your everyday experience l Be selective when you draw on collected humor Sprague Chapter 18 73
Convert Attention to Interest l Link your topic to your listeners’ self-interest l Incorporate storytelling techniques Sprague Chapter 18 74
Avoid Common Attention Pitfalls l Avoid questionable attention grabbers l Don’t let a story or joke take over your speech l Don’t tell jokes unless you can tell them well l Don’t let audience participation cause you to lose control Sprague Chapter 18 75
Definitions, examples, statistics and testimony all fall into what the text calls ----- for your speech. Supporting materials
Definitions, examples, statistics and testimony all fall into what the text calls ----- for your speech. Supporting materials
Credibility Chapter 19
Assess Your Speaking Image l Are you perceived as n Competent? n Concerned welfare? l Are about your audiences you perceived as n Trustworthy? n Dynamic? Sprague Chapter 19 79
Build Your Credibility Before Your Speech l Provide the contact person with information about your qualifications l Help the person introducing you set a favorable tone l Manage your image during contact with the group before the speech Sprague Chapter 19 80
Build Your Credibility Through Your Content l Present your credentials l Demonstrate a thorough understanding of your topic Sprague Chapter 19 81
Build Your Credibility Through Your Content l Be sure your material is clearly organized l Present a balanced and objective analysis l Express your concern for the audience Sprague Chapter 19 82
Motivational Appeals Chapter 20
Consider the Emotional Impact You Want to Create or Avoid l Devoid of emotion l Moderate emotion l Excessive emotion Sprague Chapter 20 84
Relate Your Speech to the Needs of Your Listeners l Maslow’s hierarchy of needs n Physiological needs n Safety needs n Love and belongingness needs n Self-esteem needs n Self-actualization Sprague Chapter 20 85
Relate Your Speech to the Needs of Your Listeners l Maslow’s hierarchy of needs n Physiological needs n Safety needs n Love and belongingness needs n Self-esteem needs n Self-actualization Sprague Chapter 20 86
Rational vs. emotional appeals l Buying a car? l Gas saving, low cost, safety l Color, style, status Sprague Chapter 20 87
Relate Your Speech to the Values of Your Listeners l Link the issues of your speech to the value of your audience l Appeal to your listener’s sense of community l Avoid excessive and inappropriate motivational appeals Sprague Chapter 20 88
Informative Strategies Chapter 21
Help Your Listeners Grasp Your Information l Avoid information overload l Give listeners a framework for organizing the information l Select and implement a specific organizational pattern: Topical, spatial, chronological, causal Sprague Chapter 21 90
Major Content Types of Informative Speeches l Speeches about Sprague objects / items processes events concepts Chapter 21 91
Help Your Listeners Grasp Your Information l Move from the simple to the complex l Move from the familiar to the unfamiliar Sprague Chapter 21 92
Use Common Techniques of Clear Explanation l Use organizers n Sign posts n Emphasis cues l Use Sprague examples liberally Chapter 21 93
Use Common Techniques of Clear Explanation l Use analogies l Use multiple channels and modes l Use repetition and redundancy Sprague Chapter 21 94
Presentation Aids Chapter 27
Plan How to Use Presentation Aids l Decide if a visual aid is appropriate l Use when there is a benefit l Determine the form and technology for your purpose l Present info conversationally Sprague Chapter 27 96
Plan How to Use Presentation Aids l Decide the best way to represent an object or concept visually n Graph/picture n Line graph n Pie graph n Flowchart n Table or grid Sprague Chapter 27 97
Wi-Fi Radio Plans l Home wi-fi radio
Making Money: The Sound. Exchange Problem l NAB - Sound. Exchange Settlement l 2006 - $. 0008 2007 - $. 0011 2008 - $. 0014 2009 - $. 0015 2010 - $. 0016 2011 - $. 0017 2012 - $. 0020 2013 - $. 0022 2014 - $. 0023 2015 - $. 0025 l l l l l
Prepare Your Aids to be Clear and Manageable l Make sure the entire audience can see (and hear) your aid l Keep it simple and clear l Design for maximum audience impact Sprague Chapter 27 102
Blend Your Aids Smoothly into the Speech l Practice with your aids l Have your aid ready to go l Maintain eye contact with your audience Sprague Chapter 27 103
Blend Your Aids Smoothly into the Speech l Keep talking while using your aid l Balance them throughout the speech l Don’t let it become a distraction l Don’t spend too much time on it l Keep eye contact with audience Sprague Chapter 27 104
Use Presentation Software Wisely l Keep your text slides simple l Maintain consistency l Use clip art sparingly l Technique for showing at appropriate time l Give source credit (you are plagiarizing if you use a visual created by someone else) Sprague Chapter 27 105
Persuasive Presentations
Some Types of Persuasive Presentations l Sales Presentations l Proposals l Motivational Speeches l Goodwill Speeches l Debate
Strategies l Based on sound logical analysis l Takes audience attitudes into account l Outline must begin with n Specific Purpose (proposition) n Thesis Statement n Type of Proposition & Organizational pattern followed l You must list this and follow it l ‘D’ speech maximum without it
Persuasive Strategies l Appeal to the Needs of Your Audience l Have a Realistic Goal l Focus Appeals on Critical Audience Segment l Defer Thesis With Hostile Audience l Present Ample Evidence to Support Claims -- cite sources / explain source
Persuasive Strategies continued. . . l Consider Citing Opposing Ideas l Adapt to the Cultural Style of an Audience
Maximizing Speaker Credibility l Demonstrate Your Competence l Earn the Trust of Your Audience l Emphasize Your Similarity to the Audience l Increase Your Appeal to the Audience l Demonstrate Sincerity l Personalize
What kind of proposition? l Proposition of fact n n l Proposition of value n l Draw inferences from available date Is / is not Good or bad, right or wrong Proposition of policy n n n Most common, most complex Advocates specific course of action Should / should not
Types of claims (proposition) l l l When addressing whether something is true or not, or something will or won’t happen-make a claim of fact When addressing an issue that relies on individual judgment of right or wrong for its resolution, make a claim of value. When proposing a specific outcome or solution to an issue, make a claim of policy. Write specific purpose to include one List yours specifically on the outline
Organizing Persuasive Messages l l l Problem-solution (p. 135, 153) Comparative Advantages (p. 295) Refutation Pattern (p. 296) Reflective or Proposition to Proof (‘Day 9’ on course outline) Motivated Sequence (p. 294 & course outline) 1. 2. 3. 4. Attention Need Satisfaction Visualization 5. Action l You must use one of these -- list before Intro on your outline – see sample Persuasive outline
Delivery l l l l Dialect impact / some: accent impact Eye contact, posture, gestures, movement Articulation, pauses, emphasis ‘Expressiveness’ -- vocal variety Enthusiasm ‘Natural’ vs. ‘trained’ Conversational vs. ‘speech-like’
Visual Aids l l l Two different TYPES (use / balance) Help make a point / clarify (can we see it? ) Don’t look at the visual aid Show only when using Don’t put multiple ones on one page Use document camera or Power. Point (deadline Wednesday for Informative and Friday for Persuasive -- note separation page)
Audience Oriented Speaking l Do audience analysis l Favorable / neutral / unfavorable l Make message relevant to audience l Show audience how change benefits them l Address topics audience feels strongly about l Seek minor changes
Problem-Solution l I. The Nature of the Problem l II. Reasons for the Problem l III. Unsatisfactory Solutions l IV. Proposed Solution
The Bottom Line l Read and peruse lots of sources l Use the best 10 or so sources l Must use several retrievable, non-URL sources l Make it clear to the audience where your information comes from l Define terms, identify people l Know the topic well and speak with conviction
What type evidence? l l l Examples, stories, testimony, facts, statistics… Distortion -- what is truth? Historical vs. contemporary views Sources of your evidence Sources of visual aids APA style -- accurate does matter
Ethics and appeals l Teleological vs. deontological l Emotional vs. rational appeals l Audience sensitivity l Life Cycle analysis l Demographics differences l Culture and subcultures
Rules for Main Points l l l Main points should be stated as claims All points should develop thesis A presentation should contain no more than five main points Each main point should contain only one idea Main points should be parallel in structure whenever possible
Adding Transitions / Connectives l Functions of Transitions n They Promote Clarity n They Emphasize Important Ideas n They Keep Listeners’ Interested
Common Organizational Problems l Taking Too Long to Get to the Point l Including Irrelevant Material l Leaving Out Necessary Information l Getting Ideas Mixed up l Too much of a main point comes from limited sources
Functions of the Introduction (attention focusing material) l l l Capture the Listeners’ Attention Give Your Audience a Reason to Listen Set the Proper Tone for the Topic and Setting Establish Your Qualifications Introduce Your Thesis and Preview Your Presentation No more than 1/10 th of the speech time
Types of Opening Statements (still attention focusing stuff) l Ask a Question or Rhetorical Question l Tell a Story l Present a Quotation l Make a Startling Statement l Refer to the Audience l Refer to the Occasion l Use Humor
Planning the Conclusion No more than 1/10 th of the speech time l Functions of the Conclusion l The Review n The Closing Statement n l Types of Closing Statements Return to the Theme of Your Opening Statement n Appeal for Action n End With a Challenge n What is your clincher? n
More Conclusion l Humorous Story l Rhetorical Question l Unusual or Dramatic Device l Quotations l Summary
Bottom line l l l l Organize well Research well, proper APA style, non-URL sources Practice, practice (golf) Reveal sources well Be ethical Be sensitive to audience Content and organization = 75%
Impromptu Speeches l If Sprague time. . . Chapter 27 131
Critique Speeches l Speaker 1 l Speaker 2 l (previously done, above? ) l Darren La. Croix again l Toastmasters 2012
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