Subordination 1 Coordination and subordination 2 Subordinate clauses

Subordination 1. Coordination and subordination 2. Subordinate clauses (finite) 3. Infinitive clauses (non-finite) 4. –ing participle clauses (nonfinite) 5. –ed participle clauses (nonfinite) 6. Verbless clauses

1. Coordination and subordination o o Coordination establishes a relationship between ideas of approximately equal importance. Subordination establishes a kind of relationship which indicates that one idea is more important than the other.

1) Ways of subordinating minor ideas o o There are various ways of subordinating minor ideas, which may be expressed by a finite or non-finite clause or by a verbless clause. e. g. *As they were curious about their new neighbours, the Johnsons went and visited them at the first opportunity. *Being curious about their new neighbours, the Johnsons went and visited them at the first opportunity. *Curious about their new neighbours, the Johnsons went and visited them at the first opportunity.

2) Subordinators o o simple subordinators complex subordinators correlative subordinators marginal subordinators

2. Subordinate clauses (finite) o o o Nominal clauses Relative clauses Adverbial clauses

1) Nominal clauses o o o o Nominal clauses, also known as “noun clauses”, can perform most functions of a noun phrase. This kind of clause is usually introduced by “that” or by a wh-word such as who, what, which, where, when, how, why, etc. Nominal clauses can function as subject, object, subject complement, appositive, and prepositional complementation, eg: It is quite clear that the crime was done deliberately. I can’t imagine what made him behave like that. The mystery is whether he ever went there at all. My original question, why he did it at all, has not yet been answered. You must give it back to whoever it belongs to.

2) Relative clauses o A relative clause is normally introduced by a relative word, that is, by a relative pronoun, a relative determiner, or a relative adverb. This type of clause will be fully treated in the following lecture.

3) Adverbial clauses n Adverbial clauses of time Eg. Whenever I met with any difficulty, he came to my help. n Adverbial clauses of place Eg. Where there is a will, there is a way. n Adverbial clauses of manner Eg. You must do the exercises as I show you. n Adverbial clauses of cause Eg. As there was no answer, I wrote again. n Adverbial clauses of result Eg. He had overslept, so that he was late for work. n Adverbial clauses of purpose Eg. They climbed to the top of the building in order that they could get a bird’s view of the city. n Adverbial clauses of condition Eg. In case it rains, we won’t be able to go there on foot. n Adverbial clauses of concession Eg. I shouldn’t have time to see him, even if he were here.

3. Infinitive clauses (non-finite) o o 1) Types of infinitive clauses: 3 types n n n Infinitive clause without expressed subject Infinitive clause with expressed subject Infinitive clause introduced by whword or subordinator

a) Infinitive clause without expressed subject o o *This is the type of infinitive clause whose logical subject is only implied but can be inferred from the context. Generally speaking, the logical subject of an infinitive clause is just the subject of the main clause. Eg. I hope to be able to come. *In the case of attitudinal infinitive clause, the logical subject may be understood to be the speaker himself. Eg. To be frank, you need a great deal of courage.

b) Infinitive clause with expressed subject o o o *The expressed subject of an infinitive clause is generally introduced by “for”. Eg. The best thing would be for you to tell everybody. *The expressed subject can also be introduced by “with”. Eg. He knew that with him to help, she could and would succeed. * The expressed subject can also be introduced by “rather than”. Eg. Rather than you do the job, I prefer to finish it myself. (Here, rather than is a “quasi-coordinator” which, when occurring at the initial position, is normally followed by a bare infinitive. )

c) Infinitive clause introduced by wh-word or subordinator o o *Infinitive clauses can be introduced by wh-word, usually by what, how, where, etc. Eg. I don’t know what to do / how to do it / where to go. * Infinitive clauses can also go with a subordinator Eg. He opened his lips as if to say something.

2) Syntactic functions of infinitive clauses o o As an adverbial of purpose, the infinitive is usually with “to”. The logical subject need not be expressed if it is identical with the subject of the main clause; if not, the logical subject will have to be expressed and be introduced by “for”. Eg. She stood up to be seen better. He moved aside for her to be seen better. To denote result, we normally use the simple form of to-infinitive. Eg. He got to the station only to be told that the train had left. This coffee is too hot to drink. o As an adverbial of cause, infinitive clauses generally collocate with adjectives or verbs denoting emotion or fortune. Eg. I am delighted to know that you have got a job. She wept to see him in such a terrible state.

4. –ing participle clauses (nonfinite) 1) Types of –ing participle clauses: 3 types n n n –ing participle clause without expressed subject or subordinator –ing participle clause with expressed subject

a) –ing participle clause without expressed subject or subordinator o o * An –ing participle clause is mostly without an expressed subject or a subordinator. Its logical subject can be inferred from the context or from the situation in which the clause occurs. Eg. He denied having been there. I have a friend living in London. Beating a child will do more harm than good. * Attitudinal –ing participle clauses have become set expressions, whose logical subject may be identified as the speaker himself or people in general. Eg. Judging from what you say, he has done his best. Generally speaking, this book is not very difficult.

b) –ing participle clause with subordinator o o An –ing participle clause may sometimes be introduced by a subordinator. The logical subject is identical with the subject of the main clause. Eg. When sleeping, I never hear a thing.

c) –ing participle clause with expressed subject o o An –ing participle clause may be with an expressed subject. This type commonly functions as object or prepositional complementation. Eg. Do you mind my / me making a suggestion? My parents object to my / me going out alone.

2) Syntactic functions of –ing participle clauses a) Both –ing participle and infinitive clauses can be used as subject, object, and subject / object complement. In many cases, these two forms are interchangeable without difference in meaning, eg: o I like getting up early in the morning. o I like to get up early in the morning. o There are cases, however, in which the choice between an –ing participle and an infinitive gives different meanings, eg: o I noticed an old man crossing the road. o I noticed an old man cross the road.

2) Syntactic functions of –ing participle clauses b) As adverbials, –ing participle clauses can be used in various senses. They may act as adverbials of time, cause, or condition, concession, result, and accompanying circumstances, eg: o Climbing to the top of the tower, we saw a magnificent view. o Being a hard-working young man, he was praised by his teachers. o You will make youeself more tired keeping on your feet (= if you keep on your feet). o Knowing all this, he still insisted on my paying for the damage. o It rained heavily, causing sever flooding in that area. o The old man was asleep, holding a book in his hand.

5. –ed participle clauses (nonfinite) 1)Types of –ed participle clauses: 3 types o o o –ed participle clause without expressed subject or subordinator –ed participle clause with expressed subject

a) o o –ed participle clause without expressed subject or subordinator The logical subject can be inferred from the context. Generally speaking, the logical subject is just the subject of the main clause. Eg: Covered with confusion, she hurriedly left the room.

b) –ed participle clause with subordinator o o An –ed participle clause may be introduced by a subordinator. The subordinators include when, though / although, as if / as though, if, even if, once, unless, until, etc. This type of – ed participle clause may be viewed as an elliptical clause. Eg: Once published, the book caused a remarkable stir.

c) –ed participle clause with expressed subject o o o This type of –ed participle clause is known as an “absolute construction”, which is sometimes introduced by with, eg: The job finished, we went home straight away. With the tree grown tall, we will get more shade.

2) Syntactic functions of –ed participle clauses o o a) A postmodifying –ed participle clause corresponds to an elliptical relative clause. The elements ellipted are usually the subject relative pronoun and the operator, eg: The men, (who were) soaked with sweat from an all-night march, immediately went into action.

2) Syntactic functions of –ed participle clauses o o o b) As an adverbial, –ed participle clauses can denote time, cause, condition, concession as well as accompanying circumstances, eg: Heated, the metal expands. Deeply moved, he thanked her again and again. United, we stand; divided, we fall. Left to his own devices, Charles did not relax his efforts. He went to Beijing that winter, disguised as a merchant.

6. Verbless clauses 1) o o o Types of verbless clauses: 3 types Verbless clause without subordinator Verbless clause with expressed subject

a) Verbless clause without subordinator o o o *This type may be realized by an adjective phrase or a noun phrase, eg: Right or wrong, I have given him a piece of mind. An excellent speaker, he was never at a loss for a word.

b) Verbless clause with subordinator o * This type may again be divided into: n o Whatever the reason, his cordiality has won him a friend. n o “subordinator + prepositional phrase”, eg: When in Rome, do as the Romans do. n o “subordinator + adjective phrase”, eg: Although very helpful, he was not much liked by people. n o “subordinator + noun phrase”, eg: “subordinator + adverb phrase”, eg: He spoke ungraciously, if not rudely.

c) Verbless clause with expressed subject n o Two hundred people died in the accident, many of them children. n o “noun phrase + adverb phrase”, eg: Breakfast over, he went to his counting house. n o “noun phrase + prepositional phrase”, eg: There he stood, a tray in hand. n o “noun phrase + noun phrase”, eg: “noun phrase + adjective phrase”, eg: Miriam looked at Harry, his eyes full of doubt and discomfort.

2) Syntactic functions of verbless clauses o o o a) As adverbials, verbless clauses can denote time, place, cause, condition, concession, manner, and accompanying circumstances, eg: You must eat it when fresh. The cardboard is light-proof where thick.

2) Syntactic functions of verbless clauses o o b) As postmodifier in a noun phrase, a verbless clause functions like a non-restrictive relative clause, eg: His hands, numb from the cold, could not find the key.