Subject matter to be covered 1 Mathematics and

Subject matter to be covered… 1. Mathematics and Study Methods 2. Human Performance 3. Meteorology 4. Aircraft Technical and General 5. Radio Aids 6. Instruments 7. Law and Procedures 8. Flight Planning 9. Navigation and Plotting CPL/ATP – Ground School Overview…

What else…. l 200 hours total flying time l 100 hours Pilot-in-Command l 50 hours Cross-country flying l 10 hours night flying l IF Rating (40 hours single engine and 50 hours twin engine)

Your course facilitator for this Ground School… Brand Wessels Cell: 073 -591 3907 Email: brandwessels@yahoo. com

Student Commentary… Comments received from Jason Alexander (CPL course): Cellphone: l “Excellent all round knowledge – explanations simple and easy to understand” l “Very helpful methodologies” l “Would recommend it to anyone”

Student Commentary… Frans Pretorius Cellphone: 072 -252 8832 Comments received from Frans(CPL): “Very entertaining, no spoon feeding here, worth it and money well spent, great tempo and passed 6 subjects in one sitting… ”

Student Commentary… Tjaart Janse van Rensburg Cellphone: 083 -240 7614 Comments received from Tjaart(CPL): “Great results, very comprehensive, learnt a hell of a lot, very satisfied. ”

Student Commentary… Ruan van Vuren Cellphone: 072 -179 6902 Comments received from Ruan(CPL): “Very educational, well worth it, much better than comparable courses I tried…”

Student Commentary… Comments received from Sean Kenny (ATP course): “Great pace, good discussion” l “Well informed on subject matter” l “Excellent communication process” l “Great course – thank you very much!” l

Student Commentary… Comments received from Martin van Eeden (ATP course): “So I was not the only student struggling…. ” l “Application focused – helped me a lot. ” l “Good people skills by facilitator. ” l “Arranged in such a way that we could learn from each other. ” l

Course Highlights….

Trigonometry Some triangles do not always have a 90º angle, therefore the normal trig functions do not always apply. The following formula is used to solve the RNAV questions. The COSINE Rule : Mathematic Review…. . a² = b² + c² - 2 bc x COS A b² = a² + c² - 2 ac x COS B c² = a² + b² - 2 ab x COS C The SIN Rule : a SIN A = b SIN B = c SIN C

The Right Angled Triangle Trigonometric functions are commonly defined as ratios of two sides of a right triangle containing the angle

Example: At 1205, aircraft A and B are 75 nm's apart and are on a collision course. Aircraft A 330 Kts. Aircraft B 360 Kts. The relative bearing from A to B is 075. What angle needs to be closed by aircraft B to intercept aircraft A? SIN B = 0. 885 62. 3º

An Equation is like a balance scale. Everything must be equal on both sides. 10 = 5+5

Cross Multiplication Moving the variable around in a function, until the unknown variable is isolated. Example: In a² = b² + c², if we have to c solve for we have to isolate it on one side of the equal sign. Important: What you do on one side of the equation has to be done on the other side. a² = b² + c² - b² leaves c² isolated, but then we have to subtract b² on the left side of the Thus: equation as well: a² - b² = c²

Percents Have Equivalents in Decimals and Fractions Percent Fraction Decimal Fraction Simplified 1 20 20% =. 20 = 100 = 5

Included % When asked to work out the % of reserve fuel when it’s already included in the total given, care must be taken with the mathematics: Example: We have 11 500 Lt of fuel which include 15% reserve – how much fuel do we have available without using the reserve fuel? If we started with 10 000 Lt and then had to add 15% reserve it means: 10 000 x 15% = 1500 + 10 000 = 11 500 Lt total fuel. To reverse the calculation (how much fuel do we have without the 15%), we have to divide the total with 1. 15. Or 11 500 ÷ 1. 15 = 10 000 Lt

Interpolation: 1. to insert between or among others 2. to change by putting in new material 3. to estimate a missing value by taking an average of known values at neighboring points

Interpolate one series at a time: PALT 14 000 AUW 12 000 LBS 1237 AUW 10 750 LBS AUW 10 000 LBS 15 500 16 000 1260 1169 1098 1115 1268 – 1237 = 31/2000 X 1500 = 2, 25 (+1237) 1260=– 1260 1115 = 124/2000 X 750 = 54, 37 (+1115) = 1169 1120 – 1098 = 22/2000 X 1500 = 16, 5 (+1098) = 1114. 5

Two aircraft flying at the same Flight Level, Aircraft A has a Mach Number of 0. 815 and a TAS of 500 Knots, Aircraft B has a Mach Number of 0. 76. At what Flight Level are the aircraft flying and what is the TAS of aircraft B?

1 In 60 Rule. A VOR DME defines the centre of an airway 10 Nautical Miles wide. An aircraft at distance 180 Nautical Miles has a two dot fly right indication on a 5 dot CDI. What is the distance from the airway? . Distance Off Track Error 4° 60 720 60 = Distance Off 60 180 NM = Distance Off = = Distance To Go A ) Distance from centre = 12 NM B ) Distance from boundary = 7 NM 12 NM 5 Nautical Miles 180 NM 4° GGV

DME Calculations. An aircraft at FL 410 has a DME range of 14 NM. What is the ground range From the DME station. Using Pythagoras C² = A² + B² The maximum error is when the aircraft is close to the DME and high altitude. A FL 410. 14 NM DM E Sla nt C Lin e. R ( 14 ) ² = 196 = B = ( 41000 6080 ) ² 45. 468 + 12. 269 NM an ge. Ground Range. B VOR DME JSV. + B² B²

Problem Solving is easy if you follow these steps Understand the problem

Step 1 – Understand the problem l Read the problem carefully. l Find the important information. l Write down the numbers. l Identify what the problem wants you to solve. l Ask if your answer is going to be a larger or smaller number compared to what you already know.

Step 2 - Decide how you’re going to solve the problem Choose a method Use a graph Write an equation Find a pattern Use reasoning Make a table Use formulas Make a list Work backwards Draw a picture Act it out

Step 3 - Solve the problem Example:

Step 4 - Look Back & Check Reread the problem Substitute your new number Did your new number work?

Trig Example: You are taking off from a runway, with a hill 300’ high, 6000’ from the threshold. What angle of climb must you maintain to clear the hill? tan x = y/x Push this button just you choose a 2 nd And y=300’ before and x=6000’ function button Tan x = 0. 05 Inverse Force of 3(or cot, or Divide by. Button tan same as inverse tanˉ¹) Thus x = 2, 86º Force of 2 10 to the force … Square Root Brackets Degree, minutes, seconds – also hours, minutes, seconds % Button Know your calculator!

Study Methods Mind Maps l Memory Training l How to create Summaries l Time Management l Study Tips l Habits to Acquire l

Mind Mapping….

Study Methods

The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People Habit 1: Be Proactive Habit 2: Begin with the End in Mind Habit 3: Put First Things First Habit 4: Think Win-Win Habit 5: Seek First to Understand, then to be Understood Habit 6: Synergize Habit 7: Sharpen the Saw

The Time Management Quadrant 1 URGENT NOT URGENT • Preparation IMPORTANT • Crises • Pressing Problems • Deadline driven projects, meetings, preparations 2 • Prevention • Values clarification • Planning • Relationship building • Empowerment NOT IMPORTANT • Interruptions, phone calls 3 • Trivia, busywork • Some mail, some reports • Some telephone calls • Some meetings • “Escape” activities • Many popular activities • Excessive TV • Time wasters 4

Cardio-respiratory System -The Lungs and the transport of Oxygen Air enters through the nose and mouth and passes down the trachea to the bronchial tree. Human Performance…

When you inhale, air is drawn into the lungs due to a reduction in pressure inside the chest. This reduction in pressure can be ascribed to the outward movement of the chest wall and the downward movement of the diaphragm. When exhaling the air is expelled from the lungs by the generally passive process of muscular relaxation allowing the chest wall to fall and the diaphragm to relax. The ever dividing passageways in your lungs terminate at the alveoli (very fine sac-like structures) where the blood in the alveolar capillaries is brought into very close proximity with oxygen molecules. Under the influence of a pressure gradient, oxygen diffuses across the capillary membrane from the alveolar sac into the blood. From there it is taken up by the protein molecule hemoglobin for transport around the body. Breathing provides an exchange of respiratory gases between the environment and the blood. The rate and depth of breathing are adjusted to meet the enormous changes in the consumption of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide.

Meteorology….

The Atmosphere Most flying here. . Most cloud and precipitation here

Position of Jet Streams

Types of Airframe Icing Glazed/Clear/Rain ice Hoar Frost Rime Ice Most dangerous type of ice!

Caused by steep pressure gradients when the anti-cyclone flow of air from a high pressure system to the south west of the country LOCAL WINDS The sudden dramatic change of this south westerly wind, which replaces the prevailing north easter is a common feature of the Buster. CLOUD INDICATING WIND When the South Easterly winds are forced to rise up over Table Mountain, the famous "table cloth" cloud forms – The descending air on the other side of the mountain is warmed, and any moisture present is absorbed by the air as water vapour. Both sides of the mountain will be clear of cloud, while the summit is cloud covered. During the summer months there is frequently a strong south easterly wind prevalent over the Cape Peninsula.

Cloud Classification Stratus (St). Layered clouds that form in stable air near the surface due to cooling from below Cumulus (Cu). Cumulus clouds form when convective currents from the earths radiation exist. They usually have flat bottoms, and dome shaped tops

Aircraft Technical and General

The Main Flight Controls in Action…

Critical engine

Engine overview

Relative Wind

Fuel Injection Each Cylinder provided with correct mixture from individual fuel lines. Advantages: 1. Free from evaporation ice. 2. More uniform fuel delivery. 3. Improved fuel/air ratio control

Crankshaft Pistons To Propeller

Turbo Charging

Gas Turbine Engines turbine Compressor

The Turbo prop

Radio Aids…

The ADF Relative bearing information can be displayed on either a RMI (radio magnetic indicator) or on the older RBI (relative bearing indicator). The difference between the two indicators is that the RBI does not display compass heading information but remains on a constant heading as selected by the pilot. RMI RBI Signal Characteristics • NDB's transmit vertically polarised signals in the medium freqency (MF) band. • The signal is radiated equally in all directions and aircraft equipped with receiving equipment (ADF) can measure the direction of the incoming waves.

ADF Interception Calculations. An aircraft heading 040° M has an ADF reading of 060° Relative from an NDB. ATC instructs the pilot to Intercept the NDB 120° 120 QDM at an angle of 050°. Calculate the Intercept Heading, the change in aircraft heading and the Relative Bearing of the NDB. B ) Change In Aircraft Heading K A ) Intercept Heading 120° Intercept QDM - 50° Angle = 070 ° TR 100° pt ce er 060° t In QDM + 0 Relative Bearing 040° 12 Magnetic Heading 070 ° 50° 100 °QD M AC Heading 040° Went To 070° = 30° Right C ) Relative Bearing Of NDB 50° Station.

The area between the limit of the surface wave and the point of reception of the first sky wave, is termed dead space 1 st Sky Return Sky wave Surface Wave Dead Space Skip Distance The distance between the transmitter and the point on the surface where the first sky wave return arrives is called the skip distance

Amplitude Modulation (AM). Amplitude modulation may be used to transmit coded messages at audio frequencies (AF) or to transmit speech and music. The audio signal gets impressed on the radio frequency by changing the amplitude of the Carrier wave (CW). This change in amplitude is carried out by morphing the carrier wave to the audio signal. During this process the frequency remains constant. Resultant Wave Carrier Wave (A) Where the audio wave is positive the amplitude is increased. Audio Wave (B) Where the audio wave is negative the amplitude is decreased. This is a measure of the modulation depth, which is a percentage measurement of the degree to which the wave is modulated. It is the ratio: Amplitude of A Amplitude of B X 100

Maximum Theoretical Range Calculation. If an aircraft ( RX ) is at FL 100 what is the maximum range that the signal can be received from a transmitter ( TX ) a 100 feet high?

Primary Radar. Antenna. Beam Out RX TX Beam Return Beam Out Range = S X T 2

Instruments…… The DRMC is in essence a compass card with numeric directions, on a freely suspended bar magnet

Altimeter Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Drain Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Drain Static Pressure Line Pitot –Static Probe

Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) Colour Coding Vne Velocity never exceeded Yellow Arc Cautionary speed band. In still air only Vno Maximum normal operating speed Green Arc Normal operating speed band Vso Stall speed in the landing config Vs 1 Stall speed clean White Arc Flap operating band Vfe Maximum flap extended speed

Pressure Altimeter Construction Sealed Case Static Vent Altimeter Scale Capsule Static Port Linkages Pointer Baro Correction ØStatic pressure is measured at the Static port. ØAs the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule expands. ØThis expansion shows an increase in altitude. ØAs the aircraft descends the Static pressure increases and the capsule will contract. ØThis contraction shows a decrease in altitude. ØThe Baro correction is used to compensate for any deviation in ISA conditions.

Fluxvalve Theory In order to overcome the problems associated with the placing of the compass on the aircraft, the magnets could be placed outside of the cockpit, in an area where they where least affected. The problem now however would be how the pilot would see the instrument. One solution would be to convert the magnetic field (flux), into electric energy which could be interpreted by cockpit instrumentation as heading references. This is the role of the fluxvalve. If instead of using a magnet, a highly permeable soft metal Electrical current interpreted by instrumentation, and bar is fixed to an aircraft represents a magnetic from fore to aft, and the heading. aircraft is placed within the earths magnetic field, the bar will itself will acquire flux "Whenever there is a change of flux (become magnetized). The linked with a circuit, an degree to which this flux will Electromagnetic Field is induced in develop depends upon two the circuit. " factors: 1. The latitude of the aircraft 2. The position of the bar in relation to the meridians of Detect the Magnetic Field and convert to electrical current. the magnetic field

Attitude Indicator The aircraft's attitude relative to the natural horizon is shown by the aircraft symbol (A) and flight command bars (B). The horizon bar is carried on a flexible tape with the upper and lower sections coloured to Glide represent the sky and ground. It Slope also has to indicate the pitch angles. The roll angle is displayed by a pointer (D) that rotates with the flexible tape and is referenced against a fixed scale. (Freedom of movement for the flexible tape is: Pitch ± 90° and Roll 360°) Pitch and Bank Commands When armed the Pitch and Bank Commands provide the pilot with “Fly to commands”. ATTITUDE : Climb and Left Bank Command DBars Decision Height Ao. A B B A Horizon Bar Turn and Slip Indicator Flight Director Indicator

Mach Meter Calculations Calculate the altitude in ISA where a TAS of 465 Knots equals a Mach Number of 0. 80. Flight Level = -35. 5°C FL 252 or 25200 Feet -35. 5°c 35. 5 degree temperature Drop Total Drop 50. 5°celcius 0°c Flight Level = 50. 5°C / 2 x 1000 15 degree temperature Drop 15°c Sea Level

Procedures “A series of predetermined maneuvers by reference to flight instruments, with specified protection from obstacles, from the initial approach fix (or where applicable, from the beginning of a defined arrival route) to a point from which a landing can be completed and thereafter, if a landing cannot be completed, to a position at which holding or en-route obstacle clearance limits apply. ”

The Heading Section The approach Plan View Section The “Plate” The approach Profile View Section The Landing Minima Section

Standard Holding Pattern Terminology Holding Side Abeam Position Outbound Leg Outbound Turn 4 min below 14 000’ 5 min above 14 000’ Inbound Turn Fix End Inbound Leg Holding Fix Holding Course Non-Holding Side

The Procedure Turn Approach (45 /180 ) 1 minute (CAT A & B aircraft) 1 minute 15 seconds (CAT C, D & E aircraft) 30° 180° 45° 30° Inbound Track 1 – 3 minutes A timed outbound track from the facility, followed by, A 45 turn away from the outbound track (for a given time), followed by, A turn through 180 in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track.

Sector 1 – Parallel Entry • The sector 1 (parallel) entry, is carried out as follows: On arrival overhead the beacon, the aircraft is turned onto the outbound heading (to fly parallel to the inbound track), for the necessary period of time. The aircraft is turned to the left, into the holding side of the pattern, to intercept the inbound track or fly directly to the beacon (as shown). On arrival overhead the beacon a second time, the aircraft is turned to the right to follow the holding pattern. Aircraft turns onto outbound heading Turn to the left

CAR’s – Civil Aviation Regulations Part 1: Definitions Part 11: CARCOM, exemptions, changes to regulators Part 12: Accidents and Incidents Used. Pilot to Licensing be called ANR’s…. Part 61: Part 64: Cabin Crew Part 67: Medical certification Part 91: General Operating and Flight Rules Part 121: Air Transport - Large Aeroplanes (> 5 700 kg) Part 127: Air Transport – Helicopters Part 135: Air Transport – Small Aeroplanes (<5 700 kg)

Johannesburg Airspace…

Flight Planning…

The Planning Process… Obtain all Airfield Data – Jeppesen AIP Obtain Weather METAR/TAF Sig. X Complete and File Flight Plan Where am I? Where am I going? Check Performance Graphs Complete Weight and Balance Develop Navigation Log Complete Fuel Log

Runway Construction Displaced Threshold 600 meters 210 feet 400 meters 310 feet Runway 100 meters 21 50 meters 03 Stopway 2000 meters Stopway 150 m Clearway

Unit of Measure Conversion 1 lt water = 1 kg 1” = 2, 5 cm 1 IG = 10 lbs 1 m = 100 cm 1 IG = 1, 2 USG 1 nm = 1, 15 sm 1 kg = 2. 2 lbs 1 nm = 1, 85 km 1 ft = 0. 3 m 1 ft = 12” 1 m = 3. 28 ft 1 USG = 3, 78 lt 1 IG = 4, 54 lt 1 lt = 0, 26 USG 1 USG = 8. 33 lbs 1 nm = 6080’ 1 sm = 1, 6 km 1 sm = 5280’ 1 km = 3280’

LEMAC or % MAC Introduction: Ø Another way of expressing the position of the CG is as a percentage Mean Aerodynamic Chord or % MAC. Ø The chord line is the straight line joining the leading edge and the trailing edge of an aerofoil. Ø On a tapered wing the average length of the chord is calculated and termed the Mean Aerodynamic Chord or MAC. Ø When working with MAC use a drawing to solve any questions that can be asked. DATUM CG (A ) DIFF ( B ) LEMAC ( C ) MAC ( D ) MAC

LEMAC Example No 1. An aircraft has a MAC of 162 inches. The LEMAC is at FS 324. The CG is 412 inches aft of the datum. What is the CG expressed as a percentage MAC? DATUM CG is 412 inches DIFF 88 inches LEMAC is 324 inches MAC is 162 inches

Basic Point of Equal Time ( PET ) Example No 1 The track from point A to point B is 078°. TAS is 176 Kts. Distance from A to B is 843 nautical miles. W/V 120/40. What is the time to the PET? Time GSR Departure A = 204 Kts Time 144 Kts GSO Destination B PET

Question: 5 -34 OAT = 15ºC PAlt 4800’ Weight = 11300 lbs TWC = 5 kts 50’ obstacle to clear. Calculate TODR… If Airfield Elevation is given, calculate PAlt before entering the graph… Note: When asked for “take-off distance”, move up-slope… When asked for “take-off ground roll”, move horisontal… Answer: 4100’

Northern Hemisphere Summer Navigation…. Southern Hemisphere Summer

Time Zones

Meridians of longitude are drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole and are at right angles to the equator. The "Prime Meridian" which passes through Greenwich, England, is used as the zero line from which measurements are made in degrees east and west to 180°. The equator is an imaginary circle equidistant from the poles of the earth. Circles parallel to the equator (lines running east and west) are parallels of latitude. They are used to measure degrees of latitude north or south of the equator. The angular distance from the equator to the pole is one-fourth of a circle, or 90°. Thus latitude would run from 90° North to 90° South of the equator. Any specific geographical point can thus be located by reference to its longitude and latitude.

Convergency = Dlong x sin Mid Lat Conversion Angle = Convergency 2 Convergency = 2 x the Conversion Angle

1 in 60 Rule

What do you need?

What to expect in the Navigation Plotting Exam. . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Heading and Speed Determination Position Determination Air Plot Wind Determination Track Correction

We will cover…. l Attitude Personal Development l Curriculum Vitae l Body Language l Interview Skills l Dress Code l Company Research

Attitude Life and flying has one important factor in common – attitude determines altitude!! l Attitude is more important than education, money, failures and successes, appearances, giftedness and skill. l Bottom line – if you say you can you are right. If you say you can not you are also right. l

What is Attitude? l Attitude is the way we communicate our thinking to other people. l Our attitude is reflected in the way we talk, walk, sit, eat, sleep, drive a car – and indeed in flying an aircraft.

Know this… l Our attitude is the strongest element of our lives that requires our control l Our attitude affects others l Attitudes can be changed

Make The Call !! l After you send a resume or an introductory letter, always make a follow-up call. Remember, it's the conversation that gets you the interview. Here's how to get on the phone and into the interview process. l Never call human resources or an in-house recruiter. These people have no vested interest in talking with you. In fact, they don't want to talk to you. You'll only foul up their process. If you want to get hired, you need to talk with an actual hiring manager. If that's a midlevel project supervisor or the Operations Director, so be it.

Your attitude will make or break you as a student!