Statistics Research Methodology Week 2 Research Philosophies Approaches

Statistics & Research Methodology Week 2 Research Philosophies, Approaches, & Strategies Assistant Professor: Khalid A. Dahleez

Chapter Overview This chapter explores: • the nature of the relationship between theory and research); • epistemological issues ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ; ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ • ontological issues ﻭﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ ; • how these issues relate to the widely used types of research strategy, quantitative and qualitative research; • the ways in which values and practical issues are also central to business research.

Theory and Research • Business research does not exist in isolation – Link between social reality ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ and research – Link between business research methods and practice connect with wider social relations • Understanding the link between theory and research – There are two key issues here: • What form of theory is being referred to? • Is data collected to test theories or build them?

Figure 4. 1 The research ‘onion’ Source: © 2015 Mark Saunders, Phillip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill

Definitions of Important Terms • Research Paradigm (Lincoln & Guba, 2000) = Philosophy (Saunder et al 2007) or even = Worldview (Creswell 2009) • A paradigm is ‘a cluster ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied, how research should be done, [and] how results should be interpreted’ (Bryman 1988 a: 4). • Research philosophy is an over-arching , ﺟﺎﻣﻊ , ﻋﺎﻡ ﺷﻤﻮﻟﻲ term relating to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge. (Saunders et al, 2009)

Definitions of important Terms • Research Methodology = Research Strategy • Research Methodology‐ to emphasize an overall approach to the research process e. g. Survey or Action Research • Research Methods = Technique = Procedure • Research Method‐ used to outline a specific research technique or procedure for collecting and analyzing data e. g. Questionnaire or Focus Group

Understanding your research philosophy Thinking about research philosophy, there are 3 ways: • Ontology ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ / ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺟﻮﺩ – what assumptions do we make about the ways the world works? Are social entities objective (reality external to social actors) or are they built on social constructions (perceptions of social actors)? ﻫﻞ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺃﻔﻌﺎﻟﻬﻢ ﻭﺭﺅﻴﺘﻬﻢ ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻦ ﻧﻔﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﻴﻦ ﺃﻮ ﻣﻦ ﻟﻪ؟ • Epistemology ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺘﺒﺮﺓ ﻭﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ – acceptable knowledge in a particular field of study? What is/shd be regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline. Can the social world be/shd be studied using the same principles & procedures like natural science?

Ontological considerations • Social ontology: the nature of social entities • What kind of objects exist in the social world? • Do social entities exist independently of our perceptions of them? • Is social reality external to social actors or constructed by them?

Epistemological considerations • What is (or should be) considered acceptable knowledge? • Can the social world be studied ‘scientifically’? • Is it appropriate to apply the methods of the natural sciences to social science research? • Positivism and interpretivism are contrasting approaches

Understanding your research philosophy Aspects of ontology • Objectivism ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ – social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent of social actors. ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﻼﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻭﻣﺪﻟﻮﻻﺗﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﻴﻦ • Subjectivism ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺗﻲ ﻟﻠﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ / ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺼﻲ – social phenomena are created from the perceptions and consequent actions of social actors, concerned with their existence.

Aspects of Ontology

What is objectivism? • Objectivism is an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent of social actors. • It implies that social phenomena and the categories that we use in everyday discourse have an existence that is independent or separate from actors.

What is constructionism? • Constructionism is an ontological position which asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors. • It implies that: – social phenomena and categories are produced through social interaction – social phenomena and categories are in a constant state of revision – Researchers' own accounts of the social world are constructions – Knowledge is indeterminate • Also referred to as constructivism

Understanding your research philosophy

Inter-relationship between the building blocks of Research Ontology What’s out there to know? Epistemology What and how can we know about it? Methodology How can we go about acquiring knowledge? Adapted from Hay, 2002, pg. 64 Methods What procedures can we use to acquire it? Sources Which data can we collect?

Understanding your research philosophy Aspects of philosophy • Positivism - the stance of the natural scientist, observable social reality, result law-like generalisations • Realism - (reality is independent of the mind) direct and critical realism (Bhaskar, 1989), knowledge of reality is due to social conditioning • Interpretivism – researchers as ‘social actors’, understanding social reality through the actors point of view • Axiology – studies judgements about value, our own value plays a role in the research

Positivism • Only phenomena and hence knowledge confirmed by the senses can genuinely be warranted as knowledge (phenomenalism). • The purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested and that will allow explanations of laws to be assessed (deductivism). • Knowledge is arrived at by gathering facts that provide the basis for laws (inductivism). • Science must (and can) be conducted in a way that is value free (i. e. objective). • There is a clear distinction between scientific statements and normative statements and the former are the true domain of the scientist.

Interpretivism • Interpretivism is taken to denote an alternative to positivism. • It is predicated upon the view that a strategy is required that respects the differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences and therefore requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action. • Derives from: –Weber's notion of Verstehen; –the hermeneutic-phenomenological tradition; –symbolic interactionism.

Realism • Realism shares two features with positivism: – a belief that the natural and the social sciences can and should apply the same approach to data collection and explanation; – a commitment to the view that there is an external reality to which scientists direct their attention (in other words, there is a reality that is separate from our descriptions of it). • There are two forms of realism: – Empirical realism simply asserts that, through the use of appropriate methods, reality can be understood. – Critical realism is a specific form of realism which recognizes the reality of the natural order and the events and discourses of the social world.

What is a Theory? (1) Zikmund (p. 39) has defined a theory as “a coherent set of general propositions, used as principles of explanation of the amount of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomona” • Put another way, a theory is a formal, testable explanation of some events that includes explanations of how things relate to one another. • A theory can be built through a process of reviewing previous findings of similar studies, simple logical deduction, and/or knowledge of applicable theoretical areas. • Understanding and predicting—are the two purposes of theory. Thus a theory enables us to predict the behavior or characteristics of one phenomenon from the knowledge of another phenomenon.

The Abstraction Ladder Theory Propositions Abstract Levels of Abstraction Concepts / Constructs Observations of Objects, Events and Occurrences (Reality) Empirical Level

What is a Theory? (1) Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of theory development. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that have been given a name. A concept (or construct) may vary in terms of the level of abstraction Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation

What is a Theory? (1) • A construct is an abstract concept that is specifically chosen (or “created”) to explain a given phenomenon. • A construct may be a simple concept, such as a person’s weight, (unidimensional construct) • Or a combination of a set of related concepts such as a person’s communication skill, which may consist of several underlying concepts such as the person’s vocabulary, syntax, and spelling. (multi-dimensional construct)

What is a Theory? (2) A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of abstraction than concepts Example: Smoking is injurious to health Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They are usually concerned with the relationships between variables Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production

What is a Theory? (3) • Scientific research requires operational definitions that define constructs in terms of how they will be empirically measured. • A variable is a measurable representation of an abstract construct. As abstract entities, constructs are not directly measurable, and hence, we look for proxy measures called variables.

What is a Theory? (4)

What is a Theory? (5) Example

Qualities of a Good Theory (1) “A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements. It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements. And it must make definite predictions about the result of future observations” Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988

Qualities of a Good Theory (2) Often, competing theories are put forth to explain certain phenomena. One cannot really be 100% certain that a given theory is correct because, no matter on how many occasions the results of experiments agree with theory, there may come an occasion when some do not Theories must be: q. Objective q. Verifiable (i. e. within the accepted margins of error) q. Falsifiable / disprovable Good theories must understand, explain and predict

Research Approach To Theory Building Deductive and Inductive Theory • Deductivism ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ • Theory guides research ﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﺒﻨﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ : ﻧﺠﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ – Theory data – Explicit hypothesis to be confirmed or rejected – Quantitative research • Inductivism ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺀ ﻣﺒﻨﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ : • Theory is an outcome of research ﻧﺠﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻟﺒﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ – Data theory – Generalizable inferences from observations – Qualitative research /grounded theory

Research Approach Deductive and Inductive Theory

Research Wheel Deductive and Inductive Theory

The process of deduction

Deductive Reasoning Theory Hypotheses Observation Using deductive reasoning, one starts with a given theory as the basis for which we develop hypotheses and then confirm these with specific data acquired using observation or experimentation (Is our theory valid or not? ) Confirmation

Research Approaches - Deduction 5 sequential stages of testing theory • • • Deducing a hypothesis Expressing the hypothesis operationally Testing the operational hypothesis Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry Modifying theory (if necessary) Adapted from Robson (2002)

Research Approaches - Deduction Characteristics of Deduction • Explaining causal relationships between variables • Establishing controls for testing hypotheses • Independence of the researcher • Concepts operationalised for quantative measurement • Generalisation

Research Approaches - Induction Building theory by – • Understanding the way human build their world • Permitting alternative explanations of what’s going on • Being concerned with the context of events • Using more qualitative data • Using a variety of data collection methods

Inductive Reasoning Observation Pattern Tentative Hypothesis Theory Using inductive reasoning, one starts with a specific observation as the basis for which we develop a general pattern and tentative hypothesis as the foundation of a theory

Choosing your research approach The right choice of approach helps you to • Make a more informed decision about the research design • Think about which strategies will work for your research topic • Adapt your design to cater for any constraints Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

Combining research approaches Things worth considering • The nature of the research topic • The time available • The extent of risk • The research audience – managers and markers, supervisors, external examiners

Deductive and Inductive research - Summary Major differences between these approaches Saunders et al, (2009) Table 4. 2 Major differences between deductive and inductive approaches to research

Deductive and Inductive research - Summary

Research strategy: quantitative research Quantitative research is a research strategy that emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data and that: • entails a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, in which the emphasis is on the testing of theories; • has incorporated the practices and norms of the natural scientific model and of positivism in particular; and • takes a view of social reality as an external, objective reality

Research strategy: quantitative research

Features of quantitative research • A measurement of social variables • Common research designs: surveys and experiments • Numerical and statistical data • Deductive theory testing • Positivist epistemology • Objectivist view of reality as external to social actors

Research strategy: qualitative research Qualitative research is a research strategy that emphasises words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data and that: • predominantly emphasizes an inductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, in which the emphasis is placed on the generation of theories; • has rejected the practices and norms of the natural scientific model and of positivism in particular in preference for an emphasis on the ways in which individuals interpret their social world; and • takes a view of social reality as a constantly shifting emergent property of individuals’ creation.

Research strategy: qualitative research

Features of qualitative research • Understanding the subjective meanings held by actors (interpretivist epistemology) • Common methods: interviews, ethnography • Data are words, texts, and stories • Inductive approach: theory emerges from data • Social constructionist ontology

Mixed methods research • It is possible to combine quantitative and qualitative strategies within a research project. • Holmberg et al’s (2008) study of leadership shows how combining quantitative and qualitative research provided a more rounded and complete picture.

Factors influencing researchers’ choice of methods • • • Organizational Historical Political Ethical Evidential Personal

Quantitative research Qualitative research • Its purpose is to explain social life • Its purpose is to understand social life • Is nomothetic – interested in establishing law-like statements, causes, consequences, etc • Is ideographic – describes reality as it is • Aims at theory testing • Aims at theory building • Employs an objective approach • Employs a subjective approach Statistics & Research Methodology Islamic University of Gaza 51

Quantitative research Qualitative research • Is etiological – interested in explanations over space and time • Is historical – interested in real cases • Is a closed approach – is strictly planned • Is open and flexible in all aspects • Research process is predetermined • Research process is influenced by the respondent • Uses a rigid and static approach • Uses a dynamic approach Statistics & Research Methodology Islamic University of Gaza 52

Quantitative research Qualitative research • Employs an inflexible process • Employs a flexible process • Is particularistic, studies elements, variables • Is holistic – studies whole units • Employs random sampling • Employs theoretical sampling Statistics & Research Methodology Islamic University of Gaza 53

Quantitative research Qualitative research • Places priority on studying differences • Places priority on studying similarities • Employs a reductive data analysis • Employs an explicative data analysis • Employs high levels of measurement • Employs a deductive approach • Employs low levels of measurement • Employs an inductive approach Statistics & Research Methodology Islamic University of Gaza 54

Feature Quantitative Methodology Qualitative Methodology Nature of reality Objective; simple; single; tangible sense impressions Subjective; problematic; holistic; a social construct Causes and effects Nomological thinking; cause – effect linkages Non-deterministic; mutual shaping; no cause – effect linkages The role of values Value neutral; value-free inquiry Normativism; value -bound inquiry Statistics & Research Methodology Islamic University of Gaza 55

Feature Quantitative Methodology Qualitative Methodology Natural and social sciences Deductive; model of natural sciences; nomothetic; bases on strict rules Inductive; rejection of the natural sciences model; ideographic; no strict rules; interpretations Methods Quantitative, mathematical; extensive use of statistics Qualitative, with less emphasis on statistics; verbal and qualitative analysis Researcher’s role Rather passive; is the ‘knower’; is separate from subject – the known: dualism Active; ‘knower’ and ‘known’ are interactive and inseparable Generalizations Inductive generalizations; nomothetic statements Analytical or conceptual generalizations; time-and -context specific

Practical considerations • May influence or determine choices on: – research strategy – design – method – resources and costs • May be influenced or determined by: – nature of the topic – people being investigated – political acceptability

Key Points • Relevance to practitioners and the fundamental purpose of business research. • Quantitative and qualitative research constitute different approaches to social investigation. • Theory can be depicted as something that precedes research or as something that emerges out of it. • Epistemological considerations influence research strategy.

Question? • Do we have to adopt philosophy? • Pragmatism – research question is the most important determinant of epistemology, ontology and axiology of our research.

The Scientific Method The “scientific method” is basically an overarching perspective on how scientific investigations should be undertaken. It can, in effect, be considered as a complete set of principles and methods that help researchers in all scientific disciplines obtain valid results for their research studies, and which includes the provision of clear and universally accepted guidelines for acquiring, evaluating and communicating information in the context of a research study The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to understand, explain and predict

Elements of the Scientific Method Ø Empirical Approach Ø Observation Ø Questions Ø Hypotheses Ø Experiments Ø Analysis Ø Conclusion Ø Replication

Elements of the Scientific Method (Empirical Approach) Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle behind all research conducted in accordance with the scientific method Data derived from direct, systematic and careful observation and experimentation (as opposed to speculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gut feeling)

Elements of the Scientific Method (Observation) Awareness of the real / physical / social world in which we exist. This, in turn, gives rise to questions as the basis for research studies or investigations Operational Definitions – Ensures consistency when researchers talk about or are interested in undertaking or replicating research on the same phenomenon. Example: What is “exercise”?

Elements of the Scientific Method (Questions) Making an answerable question out of a research idea. The question must be answered using available and established scientific research techniques and procedures. Scientific Analysis should not be attempted on questions which cannot be answered Example of an answerable question: Can regular exercising reduce an individual’s cholesterol level? Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is time travel possible?

Elements of the Scientific Method (Hypotheses) Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest. A hypothesis is a proposition which is empirically testable. It usually seeks to explain relationships between variables, and predict, and must be falsifiable Typical hypotheses structures: Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will result Correlational - The value of Variable B is observed to be related with changes in the value of Variable A Causal – The value of Variable ψ determines the value of Variable ξ

Elements of the Scientific Method (Experiments) Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena and collecting accurate and reliable data which are used for analysis and evaluation Accuracy – Correctness of the Measurement Reliability – Consistency of the Measurement

Elements of the Scientific Method (Analysis) Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitative tools and techniques to process data Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more desirable (objective) than qualitative tools and techniques Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively analyze data acquired in research studies

Elements of the Scientific Method (Conclusions) Based on the results of the analysis conducted, and used to support or refute a hypothesis When undertaking research, conclusions should only be based on the available data and not broadened to include statements which are not supported by the data Example: If the research analysis shows that two variables are correlated (related), do not assert also that a causal relationship exists between them

Elements of the Scientific Method (Replication) The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the same research study is conducted with different participants (i. e. researchers, research subjects), then the same results are achieved Replication establishes the reliability of a research study’s conclusions Conclusions are often based on the results of one research study (aberration effect) which may not be accurate

References Materials in this presentation were adapted from several sources, most visited: • • • Bryman, A. (2015). Social research methods. The Unites States: Oxford university press. Bryman, A. , & Bell, E. (2015). Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. Christensen, L. B. , Johnson, B. , & Turner, L. A. (2015). Research methods, design, and analysis (S. Frail Ed. 12 ed. ). England: Pearson Education Limited. Horn, R. (2012). Researching and Writing Dissertations: A Complete Guide for Business: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Saunders, M. N. , Lewis, P. , & Thornhill, A. (2016). Research methods for business students (7 ed. ). England: Pearson Education Limited. Zikmund, W. G. , Babin, B. J. , Carr, J. C. , & Griffin, M. (2013). Business research methods. Cengage Learning.