Sources of Knowledge 1 Knowledge Sources Socal Scientific

Sources of Knowledge 1

Knowledge Sources: Socal Scientific Research n Social Scientific Research is a set of methods of obtaining objective knowledge about the world through systematic observation and based on social science concepts and theories 2

Characteristics of Science n Science is empirical. n n Information comes from the senses Science is systematic. n n Process is organized, methodical, public, and agreed upon by social world of scientists. Subject to Replication—repetition of studies by different scientists to see if the same results are obtained. Science includes a search for causes. n Science is provisional. n Science strives for objectivity. n 3

The Peer-review Process n To be accepted for presentation or publication (i. e. , as a part of the body of knowledge), a piece of research must: Be reviewed by scientific peers— other scientists who study the same topic. n Be judged acceptable as to: n – Literature review (theories, concepts) – Data collection techniques – Data analysis techniques – Data informed conclusions and write up 4

Steps In Conducting Research 1. Problem Formulation 2. Design Development 6. Disseminating Results 3. Data Collection. 5. Drawing Conclusions 4. Data Analysis 5

A More Realistic Picture of Scientific Research Process 6

Where do we start? Research Questions n n n n Predicting an outcome n Does y happen under circumstances a and b? Explaining causes and consequences of a phenomenon n Is y affected by x or is y a consequence of x? Evaluating a phenomenon n Does y exhibit the benefits that it is claimed to have? Describing a phenomenon n What is y like or what forms does y assume? Developing good practice n How can we improve y? Empowerment n How can we enhance the lives of those we research? Comparison n Do a and b differ with respect to x? 7

Social Research Strategies n The strategy or strategies we use to examine the social world are tied to different visions of the nature of social reality and how it should be studied. 8

Theory n. A theory is a set of interrelated hypotheses that offers an explanation of observed regularities. n Hypotheses are testable statements of presumed relationships between two or more concepts. n They specify how changes in one variable will be associated with changes in another variable. 9

Guidelines for Developing Hypotheses n Link hypotheses to more abstract theories. n Specify independent and dependent variables. n Specify nature and direction of relationship. n State so they can be verified or refuted. n State all concepts and comparisons clearly. 10

Theory n Theories n vary by level of abstraction Grand theory – more abstract n Structural functionalism, symbolic interactionism, critical theory, structuration theory, etc. Middle range theory -- special theories applicable to limited conceptual ranges n Minor theory – working hypotheses developed during the day-by-day routine of research 11 n

Abstract Different levels of theory When social bonds to conventional groups are weak, people are more likely to engage in deviant behavior. When attachments to conventional groups are weak, juveniles are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. Concrete Youth who do something with parents will be less likely to steal something. Copyright © 2000 by Harcourt, Inc. All rights reserved. 12

Abstract Induction and Deduction Theory Hypotheses n io Concrete Observations (from basic or applied research) Operational Definitions uc t Research Findings ed I D u d n n o i ct Copyright © 2000 by Harcourt, Inc. All rights reserved. 13

Positivism vs. Intrepretative • Prefer quantitative approach • Science discovers what exists • Deduction • Prefer qualitative approach • Science helps create social reality • Induction Copyright © 2000 by Harcourt, Inc. All rights reserved. 14

Induction • Inductive reasoning involves inferring something about a whole group or class of objects from our knowledge of one or a few members of that group or class. Copyright © 2000 by Harcourt, Inc. All rights reserved. 15