Sociology 2 Class 14 World Polity Theory Copyright

Sociology 2: Class 14: World Polity Theory Copyright © 2010 by Evan Schofer Do not copy or distribute without permission

Announcements • Announcements: • Exams graded • Will be returned in section next week • Today’s Class: • Wrap up World-System Theory (WST) – Also called “dependency” theory • World Polity Theory (WPT) – Also called “Neo-institutional” theory “institutional” theory, or “world society theory”

Review: Theories of Globalization • General perspectives on the economy • Adam Smith • Marx • Keynesianism • Sociological theories • Modernization theory • World Systems Theory (WST) / dependency theory • World polity theory (WPT) / institutional theory • Political Science • Realism • Institutionalism (Political science) / Interdependence • Constructivism.

Review: Modernization Theory • Argument: All societies naturally pass through certain stages of development • All societies start out as “traditional” economies – Based on subsistence farming, hunting/gathering, etc • Then, they have an “industrial revolution” • Eventually, they become “modern” high-tech societies • Modernization involved multiple shifts: • Economy: Shift to higher levels of industrialization • Institutions: Rise of modern government, legal systems, education systems, etc. • People: Creation of “modern” persons – Shift away from “traditional values”, toward science, etc…

Review: Modernization Theory • Criticisms: – 1. It is very “Eurocentric” / Western-centric • Assumes that the West represents the ideal • De-values other societies, cultural traditions – 2. Modernization theory focuses on a single country, ignores global dynamics • Assumes that success/failure is due to internal factors – Rather than relation to others: domination & competition – 3. Modernization theory is unable to explain the persistent poverty found in many countries.

Review: World-System Theory (WST) • Key Definitions: • Core: the rich, developed countries • Also: west; metropolitan countries; developed world • Periphery: poor, dependent nations • Also: underdeveloped countries; satellites; dependencies • Semi-periphery: semi-industrialized countries • Dependency: The vulnerable state of being exploited by core countries • They depend on the core for trade, investment, loans, technology, etc. (related term: underdevelopment).

Review: World-System Theory (WST) • World-System Theory: We need to study the entire global economy as a world system • We can’t understand the fate of a single country, without understanding how it fits into the overall system • Countries are rich or poor because of their position relative to others in the global capitalist system. • Argument: Europe (the “core) was able to prosper by exploiting resources from other places • The great success of Europe and the failures in the non-West weren’t just a coincidence… • Europe became wealthy by maintaining economic & military dominance over other nations • Exploited nations will never “modernize” as long as they are oppressed by Western nations.

Review: World-System Theory (WST) • Question: How does WST differ from other analysis of economic globalization? • Both agree that economics = important – But, economists often view the world economy positively (or neutrally) • Ex: Ricardo thought trade was overall beneficial • Ex: Many economists think globalization reduces poverty compared to a world without trade • WST argues that globalization perpetuates inequality.

Review: World-System Theory (WST) • In contrast, WST argues that the global economic system is inherently unfair • Economic power of core countries and MNCs is so great the periphery will always be exploited • The idea that governments and international institutions can make the system “fair” is an illusion – Governments and international institutions (e. g. , the WTO) will always reflect interests of capitalists – Therefore, WST scholars are pessimistic about the role of global governance in solving social problems… – Consequently, the system must be substantially reorganized… or overthrown.

Review: World-System Theory (WST) • How does WST view international organizations? • Answer: They do not affect the fundamental economic positions of core and periphery • Claim: Most IGOs and INGOs are created by core countries, and will never fundamentally undermine the dominance of the core – IGOs and INGOs tend to perpetuate core dominance – Example: WTO has not given big concessions to periphery • The only thing that could help would be organizations representing the peripheral countries against the core!

World-System Theory (WST) • Question: Is world-system theory “right”? • WST makes many claims. There is no simple answer • 1. Analysis of Latin America is generally thought to be compelling • 2. Rapid industrialization of South Korea, Taiwan, etc = major exceptions to WST • 3. Evidence on foreign/trade investment = mixed, but often contradict WST • Some studies find effects consistent with WST, but many do not.

World-System Theory (WST) • Criticisms of WST: • 1. Research findings are mixed at best • The specific WST predictions about sources of global inequality/poverty have often been wrong • It is true that there is horrible poverty in the world… – But: Are people worse off than if there was no global economy? That is less clear.

World-System Theory (WST) • 2. WST doesn’t make clear predictions • After the fact, almost any action can be interpreted as “serving the interests of global capitalists” – Example: The Montreal Protocol on CFC emissions • An environmental treaty addressing pollution… • First, the core didn’t sign it… WST scholars said: “See, the core is using its power to avoid the treaty!” • Later, when the core signed it, WST scholars said: “See, the core has ensnared the peripheral countries in a treaty that will keep them in poverty” – A theory that can fit any evidence is not so useful.

World-System Theory (WST) • 3. Reverse causality – WST argues: Countries that are dependent on the core of the world capitalist system will be trapped into a state of underdevelopment – BUT, maybe it works the other way around • Poverty produced “dependent” relations in the first place • Poor countries can’t produce high-tech goods, so they trade commodities (e. g. , bananas) • But, this doesn’t necessarily mean that trading bananas made those countries poorer or “trapped” them into poverty.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • A very different theory of the global system… • Emphasizes culture, not economy • World Polity Theory was also a response to modernization theory • The expectation that countries will march through stages of development… • Key observation: While countries differ a lot in their level of development, many aspects of their governments look quite similar… • World Polity Theory argues that this conformity reflects the existence of a common global culture… – Which shapes how elites set up their governments, societies.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Question: Why do people vote? • Let’s think about individuals, rather than states • Conventional Answer: They want to maximize their power and interests… – Realism is an “interest-based” theory of action • Thus, they go and vote for candidates that will enact favorable policies • Is that what is going on in people’s heads? • Do they really think: “Heh, heh… I’ll be rich!”? • In fact, a single vote rarely matters… why do people bother?

World Polity Theory (WPT) • One alternative to “interest-based” action: • Action is governed by culture and social norms • A very different view: People vote because they are “supposed to”… • We live in a society in which voting is highly valued • Example: Some of the biggest predictors of voting include: whether friends or parents vote – If you are surrounded by voters (and pro-voting norms) you are more likely to vote.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • How does culture affect us? • 1. By providing norms • Norms indicate proper behavior in a given situation • You could come to class wearing scuba gear… but norms discourage it. • In fact, we rarely consider actions that are against norms.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • 2. By providing scripts • Scripts are taken-for-granted “recipes” for behavior that we share and understand • Example: If you are interested in courting someone, you ask them on a date – You do not show up at their house with 2 oxen and ask their father’s permission to marry • People in a common culture generally follow similar scripts.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • 3. By providing cognitive models • “Cognitive models” or “maps” are mental frameworks or blueprints that people share • Example: Suppose you were chosen to set up a new school… How would you design it? • How many grades? What subjects? How big would classes be? When would the school year be?

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Note: Most ideas are drawn from a familiar “model” of the school • Would you teach by apprenticeship? Keep boys and girls separate? Teach classes on astrology? Probably not! – In the language of social psychology: We all possess a similar “cognitive model” or “map” of a school • It is that which we “take for granted”.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Question: Is it possible that there is (or is becoming) a globally shared culture that influences the governments of the world? • Are there common cognitive maps that they use to design their schools? Their societies? • If so, where might those common norms and models come from?

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Polity = associations and activities of the public/political sphere • Example: Alexis de Toqueville studied the American polity in the 19 th century • He didn’t just examine the state… he also examined associational life (NGOs) and American culture • He observed: The American state was weak (at the time); associational life shaped politics and society.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • The World Polity = political structures, associations, & culture in the international sphere • Observation: There is no strong world “state” • Rather, there associations (IGOs, NGOs) – Observation: Participants in the international system share a common culture • IGOs and NGOs are typically run by people educated in Western-style tradition, believe in common things • Example: Democracy, economic growth, education, etc.

World Polity Theory • World Polity Theory developed in response to modernization theory, WST, and realism • Modernization theory predicted that poor, agricultural societies would be different from “modern” ones • Example: Agricultural societies should have different educational systems (e. g. , focused on farming) • Example: WST predicts that governments of peripheral countries would mainly address commodity production.

World Polity Theory • Key observation: Societies were rapidly becoming more similar in terms of government and policies – Called “isomorphism” • Ex: Agricultural countries DIDN’T create different educational systems – They adopted systems similar to rich Western countries • Ex: Countries also adopted similar legal systems, population and health policies, environmental laws, etc…

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Question: Why did poor agricultural countries adopt the same kinds of policies as rich ones? • Central Claim: Features of the state derive from “worldwide models, constructed and propagated through global cultural and associational processes” • Meyer et al. , p. 84

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Key Claim: WPT suggests that states govern on the basis of cognitive models • Cognitive models come from the culture and society around them: • Associations, IGOs, NGOs, and other states make up a “world society” or “world polity” – IGOs and NGOs convey models of how to govern • Example: World bank conveys models of economic governance; UNESCO suggests educational advice; Amnesty International suggests human rights policies.

Trends in Environmental Protection Source: Frank et al. 2000

World Polity Theory (WPT) • The (partial) success of global environmentalism is seen as evidence in support of WPT • Nations appear to conform to new global “norms” • “Interest-based” theories (WST & realism) have more difficulty explaining global environmentalism.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • How does WPT view international organizations? • They play a key role: sustaining and promulgating a common culture to nations around the world • Greenpeace, UNEP, and other international organizations convey norms about what nations should do to protect the environment – Note: International organizations don’t have “power”. They can’t force states to do anything • Nor does every single country obey the norms • But, over time norms have a major effect on behavior.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • “Worldwide models… define appropriate constitutions, goals, organization charts, ministry structures, and policies… Nationstates are imagined communities drawing on models that are lodged at the world level. ” • Meyer et al. , p. 88 • Island example: What if a new territory were discovered? • How would IGOs, INGOs, & global culture reshape it?

World Polity Theory (WPT) • WPT represents a “corrective”, emphasizing the influence of norms and culture – not power – “the social sciences are reluctant to acknowledge patterns of influence and conformity that cannot be explained solely as matters of power or functional rationality. ” • (Meyer et al. p. 84).

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Issue: Is World Polity Theory “right”? • World polity theory is a new theory • Controversial, but growing fast… – 1. World Polity research on isomorphism in government policy is considered compelling • World polity research now dominates in some areas – Evolutions of education systems around the world – Understanding the success of the environmental movement – Also, lots of work on trends regarding human rights – 2. World Polity Theorists were first to realize the importance of INGOs in driving social change • Other perspectives tended to ignore them…

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Issue: Is World Polity Theory “right”? – 3. The ideas behind WPT have garnered support in other areas – Called “neo-institutional theory” • Especially the study of organizations • This suggests potential… so people are working to apply its ideas to global issues.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Criticisms of World Polity Theory • 1. It doesn’t address power • This is intentional: WPT represents a “corrective”, emphasizing the influence of norms and culture – “the social sciences are reluctant to acknowledge patterns of influence and conformity that cannot be explained solely as matters of power or functional rationality. ” • But, colonial relations were historically important in defining Western ideas as the dominant ‘world’ culture • Also, current global trends reflect US hegemony – WPT scholars point out that US doesn’t always benefit (e. g. , when countries conform to US models of education) – But, still it seems like power may be important.

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Criticisms of World Polity Theory • 2. It doesn’t sufficiently address actors or “agency” • Again, this is an intentional goal of theory… which has come under criticism • Theory implies we are all controlled by a wider culture – Builds on Durkheim’s ideas of ‘collective consciousness’ • Where is room for agency? How can it explain variability in the world?

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Criticisms of WPT: • 3. WPT explains government policies… but not life “on the ground” • Conformity to world culture may be strategic (to garner foreign aid) or very “thin” • Ex: China may pretend to conform to global norms… but in fact that is just a façade – Interests, rather than culture are really driving behavior. • WPT scholars have begun responding to this criticism… but the issue is still being debated…

World Polity Theory (WPT) • Bottom line: • WPT is a fascinating theory – offers a whole new lens to view the world • A very useful lens that explains some things that other theories can’t • Also very useful for understanding organizations… – May be helpful if you start working for a big company – But, people interested in power/inequality find it very frustrating – It doesn’t directly address the issues they care most about • Plus, it is a newer perspective… more evidence needed to fully evaluate it.