Sociolinguistic Symposium 19 Freie Universitt Berlin August 21

Sociolinguistic Symposium 19 Freie Universität Berlin: August 21 -24, 2012 Session: TS 132 -3: Re-Writing and Engaging with Urban Spaces via Linguistic Landscape Aug. 22, 2012 11: 30 am - 1: 00 pm (A-Hörsaal C) Linguistic landscape of ethnic businesses in the metropolitan area of Japan: Burmese （Myanmar） restaurants case study Junko SARUHASHI, Ph. D. (Aoyama Gakuin University, Japan) Yukiyasu ARAI, Ph. D. (Hokkaido University, Japan) Ken’ichiro HIGUCHI (Sugiyama Jogakuen University) Contact: Junko Saruhashi (saruhashi@sipeb. aoyama. ac. jp)

Today’s topics 1. Brief literature review and research view points – Subjective-perception perspective 2. Brief overview of the case – Burmese communities in Japan 3. Research method & research participants – Mixed method: a notion to the LL methodology 4. Research question – For Today’s presentation 5. Data analysis 6. Conclusion 2

Four perspectives of LL studies 1. ‘Bourdieusian’ perspective – Focuses on the (power) relations of groups of LL actors 2. ‘Good reasons’ perspective – Instrumental and rational interests of ‘general public’ from the view of LL actors 3. Subjective-perception perspective – Differing perceptions depends on LL actors 4. Collective identity perspective – Ties between LL actors and given segments of the public (Ben-Rafael, E. , Shohamy, E. & Barni, M. 2010, p. xix)

The four perspectives… • …do not exclude each other (ibid. p. xvii). • The subjective-perception perspective, which was influenced by Goffman’s works, suggests: • How we should/can treat the variety of subjective interpretations of LL actors? • We, researchers, may be one of the LL actors who interpret LL items subjectively according to their world view, ethnicity, language skills, interests, past experience and political positioning. 4

Methodological inquiries for this study • Three researchers from different academic backgrounds interpret the same LL items. – Junko Saruhashi … sociolinguistics, intercultural communication studies – Yukiyasu Arai … economics, history – Ken’ichiro Higuchi … politics, public administration studies • In addition to the visual data of LL items, authors referred different kinds of LL related data to see how the initial interpretations should be reconsidered – Interview with restaurants owners – Observation of customer-staff communication 5

The case Burmese （Myanmar） restaurants in Takadanobaba Area, Tokyo, Japan 6

Japan – Burma relation • During World War II, Japan occupied Burma from June, 1942 to August, 1945. (Nemoto, K. 2010) • Burma has been a “closed country” – No direct from March 2000 to recently – The military junta placed Aung San Suu Kyi, the Nobel Peace Prize laureate, under a house arrest • Now, along with the democratic and economic reforms in Burma (Myanmar), Japanese enterprises are looking for opportunities for investment. 7

• Multiethnic country – 135 ethnic groups – 8 main ethnic groups: Burman, Chin, Kachin, Karen, Mon, Rakhine, Shan & Wa • Military rule since 1962 – Harsh assimilation policy to ethnic minorities – Language education in ethnic languages are overtly prohibited more severely after 1988. • More than 500, 000 refugees ©Google Mapｓ Callahan, M. P. (2003), Ranard, D. A. & Barron, S. (2007) Smith, M. (1994)

Takadanobaba is in the center of Tokyo 23 -wards area 9

Burmese in Takadanobaba • Burmese started living in Tokyo from 1990’. First scattered, but gradually gathered in Takadanobaba area. (Tanabe, H. 2008) • Takadanobaba is in Toshima Ward, but the commercial area lay on the border of Toshima Ward and Shinjuku Ward • Burmese in Japan – 8, 577 (0. 4% of foreign residents) – Toshima ward: 940 (11% of Burmese) – Shinjuku ward: 1, 236 (14. 4% of Burmese) • Most Japanese people don’t know about this concentration of Burmese in Takadanobaba area 10

Why we focused Burmese restaurants • Ethnic town starts from food businesses (Inaba, Y. 2008, p 93) • Coincidently researchers met Burmese restaurant owners in Takadanobaba area. • Started hearing about “good news”, gradual movement toward democratization of Myanmar government. People come and talk about this issue at the restaurants. • Food is good.

Methods • Mixed method (LL + ethnography) • Data gathering steps 1. Taking photos of Outside LLs 2. Visiting restaurants as a customer • informal hearing & participatory observation (Fieldnotes writing) 3. Getting research permission and taking photos of Inside LLs 4. Focused interview with owners (Transcription) 5. Follow-up interview and observation as needed • Data gathering period: Feb. – Apr. , 2012 – Additional follow-up data gathering: Jul. – Aug. 2012

Burmese restaurants open at lunch time F D B C A E ©Google 13 Mapｓ

Name Profile of restaurants Open Ethnicity Note A. Mingalaba 1997 Burman The founder left Japan to the U. S. Her sister and her husband took it over. B. Nong Inle 1998 Shan (Refugee) One of the 2 owners is a naturalized Japanese. Just opened second restaurant. C. Ruby 2002 Among 5 founder, only 2 stay and others left to the U. S. D. Mai Soong Kha 2007 E. Mali Hka 2008 Burman (Refugee) Shan (Refugee) Kachin F. Shweo 2011 Burman (‘hello’ in Burmese) (‘Inle Lake’ in Shan) (English) (‘hello’ in Shan) (Name of a river in Jingpho or Kachin) (‘Golden pot ‘in Burmese) One of the sponsor is the owner of Nong Inle Burmese name of Mali Hka is Ayerwaddy.

A Focused Research Question for today’s presentation 1. What is the characteristic (or saliency) of the signboards of Burmese restaurants 2. Concerning to the above question, how the interpretations differ when solely the expressions on the signboards were analyzed and when the expressions were analyzed in referring to other fieldwork records. 15

Signboards analysis Saliency Use of national/ethnic symbols Multilingual usage

Saliency A. Mingalaba (Burman)

B. Nong Inle (Shan) 18

F. Shweo (Burman)

Finding 1 Within the flood of signs and images produced by free competition of consumerism, Burmese restaurants’ signboards are hard to say ‘distinguishable’. 【Possible reasons for 1】 – There is no shared symbol of Burma to appeal to Japanese passersby – Burmese restaurants are facing economic disadvantage. 20

National / Ethnic symbols, emblems and icons Analyze the main signboards of Burmese restaurants to find national or ethnic symbols, emblems and icons.

A. Mingalaba B. Nong Inle C. Ruby 22

Mai Soong Kha’s (opened 2007) background design resembles to the Myanmar flag that was adapted in 2010. The national flag of Burma (1974 -2010) The new adapted national flag of Myanmar (2010 -)23

A Shan state flag in Shan restaurant’s signboard B. Nong Inle Shan state flag ‘Shan restaurant’ in Japanese Katakana script 24

Finding 2 There is limited symbolic expression of Burma aiming to appeal to Japanese passersby. 【Possible reasons for the finding 2】 – Because they think that most of Japanese know very little about Burma. – Because they think the image of Burma would not be good in Japan. – Because they are against the current government and not showing national symbols is the manifestation of resistance. 25

Finding 3 Restaurants by ethnic minorities (Shan & Kachin in this case) use their ethnic symbols more frequently. 【Possible reasons for the finding 3】 – Because it is natural to manifest their ethnic orientation. – Because ethnic minorities of Burma in Japan feel that they have finally been freed from the oppression by the government and enjoy manifesting their ethnic emblems. – Because ethnic minorities of Burma in Japan want to show their resistance to the military junta. 26

Language The signboards of ethnic restaurants tend to be multilingual. Language(s) and script(s) choices of their signboards were analyzed.

Restaurant’s name in Burmese, Roman Alphabet & Japanese katakana script Restaurant name (‘Hello’ in Burmese) in Burmese script Restaurant name in katakana script Restaurant name in “Myanmar food” in Roman alphabet “Myanmar food” Japanese mixed style 28 in Burmese script

Restaurant by Burman Restaurant name in Roman alphabet English? English & French? Restaurant name in Burmese script ‘Myanmar restaurant’ in Japanese mixed style Restaurant name in Japanese katakana script ‘Myanmar restaurant’ in 29 Burmese

Finding 4 Burmese restaurants’ signboards tell simply two major information; restaurant name and kind of food they serve. To do so, they use multiple languages and styles. 【Possible insights from finding 4】 – They are facing a trade-off between the number of languages (styles) and space on signboards. – Using Burmese script might appeal not only to Burmese customer but also Japanese who find it exotic. (i. e. Burmese script is one of the limited symbol of Burmeseness) 30

Interpret and reconsider the findings referring to the interviews and participatory observation (English translation by author)

C: Ruby (Burman) * How did you decide the restaurant name? C We (five Burman founders) considered a lot. We had agreed to choose from something what Burma can be proud to the world. Burma has the world-class ruby production. So we decided to name our restaurant ‘Ruby’. * Do Burmese call ruby ‘ruby’? C No, in Burmese we call ‘bremiar’ but many people also understand the word ‘ruby, ’ too. We have thought of other options. I forgot almost all, but for example, azabee, beautiful flower in Burma. But then, none of Japanese would have never heard of and would not understand. 32

Reconsider the previous finding • 【Finding 2】 There is limited expression of Burma aiming to appeal to Japanese passersby ↓ 【Finding 2’】 Even if the owners of Burmese restaurants use national/ethnic symbols, emblems and icons, Japanese passersby might not receive the meaning of them. There is a Burmese restaurant named ‘Jade’ near from this district. Burma is also the worldclass producer of jade. 33

E: Mali Hka (Kachin) E ‘Mali Hka’ is the name of a river in Kachin state. We call it ‘Mali Hka’ but Burman call it ‘Ayerwaddy. ’ When I was a child, I used to go there for excursion. The scenery was beautiful and the river was the base of people’s life. The river water was used for drinking, daily life and agriculture. It has been a source of affluence. But now, we cannot see the beautiful scenery anymore. The government of Burma decided to construct a dam with Chinese financial aid. Then it became the most dangerous conflict zone between the government and Kachin army. It is very sad. So when I open this restaurant, I wanted to use Kachin word and Kachin spelling even though other Burmese people would not understand what it is. 34

From this narrative, restaurant name ‘Mali Hka’ rather contains deeper meaning related to the political issues. 【Finding 3】 is supported by interviews. 【Finding 3】 Restaurants by ethnic minority seem more frequently use their ethnic symbols, emblems and icons. 35 A photo of Mali Hka river hanged on the wall in Mali Hka restaurant

The second one of possible reasons was close but can be slightly revised 【Possible reason】 The restaurant owners of ethnic minority of Burma use their ethnic symbols – Because ethnic minorities of Burma in Japan feel that they have finally been freed from the oppression by the government and enjoy manifesting their ethnic emblems. 【Interpretation 3】 The restaurant owners of ethnic minority of Burma in Japan use their ethnic symbols because they are not under the direct oppression now and they wish to express their ethnic identity. 36

New interpretation to Finding 1 &2 【Finding 2’】 Even if the owners of Burmese restaurants use national/ethnic symbols, emblems and icons, Japanese passersby might not receive the meaning of them. 【Interpretation 2’】 This fact does not always bring disadvantage to Burmese restaurants. Since there are limited shared symbols, restaurants can even enjoy free expression of themselves. Collective Identity 37

B Nong Inle * B * B * B Then is the script on the signboard written in Shan script? No, Burmese. You mean Burmese script? Yes, Burmese script. Can’t the word be written in Shan script? Yes, Shan language can be written in Shan script. But in this case, we wrote the Shan word in Burmese script. Because if I wrote it in Shan language, Burman and other ethnic group of people won’t be able to read it. What do you say “Nong Inle” in Burmese? In Burmese, “Inle kan. ” Very different! Yes, very different. Shan language is similar to Thai and Lao languages. 38

【Finding 4】 is supported, but multiplicity of language / script combination was more complex than we expected. 【Finding 4】 Burmese restaurants’ signboards tell simply two major information; restaurant name and kind of food they serve. To do so, they use multiple languages and styles. This also gives further insight to 【interpretation 3】The restaurant owners of ethnic minority of Burma in Japan ・・・ wish to express their ethnic identity. Ethnic minorities are facing dilemma which to choose between Burmese script or their original script. 39

Multilingual x Multiscriptal possibilities ○ Blank ／ Found in the signboards Possible to appear Less likely to appear (1) Katakana is mainly used for loan words. (2) Hiragana is the first script to be taught Japanese language education. (3) Most of Japanese use this mixed style. 40

Reconsider the insight from finding 1 A I’m not interested in advertisement. I am satisfied with current condition, not too busy. I see Japanese customers who come once or twice a week and I can tell what we should do if I see their faces. E (Information is not enough for Japanese customers) but when they notice something different, they ask me. For example “Why you use Roman alphabet? ” or “Burmese script looks interesting. ” Then I can tell them about Kachin and Burmese culture and history. I feel like being ‘a bridge’. D I’m satisfied with hang out ‘Shan restaurant’ in shan language without any hesitation. On weekdays Japanese business people come for lunch. And on weekends Shan people gather here. We are not making much money, but we are in a good balance. 41

Reconsider the insight from finding 1 【Finding 1】 Within the flood of signs and images produced by free competition of consumerism, Burmese restaurants’ signboards are hard to say ‘distinguishable’. 【Possible reasons for 1】 – There is no shared symbol of Burma to appeal to Japanese passersby – Burmese restaurants are facing economic disadvantage. Burmese restaurants rely on interpersonal relationship rather than media-dependent marketing. 42

A signboard itself is also the product of interpersonal relationship B An old Japanese woman in my neighbor was Osyuji (Japanese calligraphy) teacher. So when I was preparing opening this restaurant, I visited her and asked her to write the script for sign. And I wrote the Burmese script by Osyuji, too. Shan + Burmese + Japanese Collaborative works between LL actors

Conclusion: 4 findings 1. Even if the owners of Burmese restaurants use national/ethnic symbols, emblems and icons, Japanese passersby might not receive the meaning of them. However, this fact does not always bring disadvantages to Burmese restaurants. Since there are limited shared symbols, restaurants can even enjoy free expression of themselves. 2. Restaurants by ethnic minority seem more frequently use their ethnic symbols, emblems and icons, because they are not under the direct oppression now and they wish to express their ethnic identity. As a result, Burmese restaurants by ethnic minority provide a place to maintain their ethnic collective identity.

3. Burmese restaurants’ signboards tell simply two major information; restaurant name and kind of food they serve. To do so, they use multiple languages and styles. Ethnic minorities are facing dilemma which to choose between Burmese script or their original script. 4. Within the flood of signs and images produced by free competition of consumerism, Burmese restaurants’ signboards are hard to say ‘distinguishable’. Burmese restaurants in Takadanobaba area rely on interpersonal relationship rather than mediadependent marketing.

Methodological considerations • Fieldwork data (even informal hearing) was helpful to get deeper or wider understanding of the LL items and some findings were even modified. (Note: this is not about the ‘trueness’ or ‘better’ understandings) • Especially the complexity within Burmese community in Japan due to the political difficulty and the ethnic diversity of Burma would be overlooked without focused interviews. • Especially when we investigate linguistic minorities and their power relationship, subjective perception of various actors need to be compared.

For further studies • Subjective-perceptions of other actors, especially the Burmese and Japanese customers • Explore what make difference of perceptions • Comparison to other ethnic restaurants and communities • Longitudinal studies • Failure studies • Possibility of LL research as a pedagogical tool

References Barron, S. Ben-Rafael, E. , Shohamy, E. & Barni, M. (2010). “Introduction: An approach to an ‘Ordered Disorder’. ” In Shohamy, E. , Ben-Rafael, E. & Barni, M. (Eds. ). Linguistic Landscape in the City. pp. xi-xxviii. NY: Multilingual Matters. Callahan, M. P. (2003). Language policy in modern Burma. In Brown, M. E. & Ganguly, S. (Eds. ), Fighting words: Language policy and ethnic relations in Asia. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Inaba, Y. (2008). Okubo, Toshi no chikara: Tabunka kuukan no dainamizumu. (Okubo, the power of urban: Dynamism of multicultural space. ) Kyoto: Gakugei Syuppannsha. Nemoto, K. (2010). Teikou to kyouryoku no hazama: kinndai biruma shi nonakano igirisu to nihon (Between resistance and cooperation: Britain and Japan in modern Burmese history). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Ranard, D. A. & Barron, S. (Eds. ). (2007). Refugees from Burma: Their backgrounds and refugee experiences. Washington DC: The Center for Applied Linguistics retrieved June 30 from http: //www. cal. org/co/pdffiles/refugeesfromburma. pdf Smith, M. (1994). Ethnic groups in Burma: Development, democracy and human rights. Anti-Slavery International. Tanabe, H. (2008). Makeruna! Zainichi Biruma jin (Burmese in Japan, Go for it!). Tokyo: Nashinokisha