Societies at Crossroads OTTOMAN DECLINE Military decline since

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Societies at Crossroads

Societies at Crossroads

OTTOMAN DECLINE Military decline since the late seventeenth century Ottoman forces behind European armies

OTTOMAN DECLINE Military decline since the late seventeenth century Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training Janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined, unable to fight Provincial governors gained power, private armies Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia Western frontiers to Austria Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed campaign in 1798 Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a powerful, modern army ● Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt an autonomous province The State was multinational and not all Muslim Power resided often with the provincial governors, elite Unwilling to adopt modern European methods or reform infrastructure Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods The "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy Extraterritoriality: Europeans exempt from Ottoman law within the empire

OTTOMAN REFORM, REORGANIZATION Attempt to reform military Led to violent Janissary revolt (1807 -1808),

OTTOMAN REFORM, REORGANIZATION Attempt to reform military Led to violent Janissary revolt (1807 -1808), suppression of Janissaries Reformer Mahmud II (1808 -1839) became sultan after revolt Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed; reforms followed He built an European-style army, academies, schools, roads, and telegraph Legal, educational reforms Called Tanzimat ("reorganization") era (1839 -1876) Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to strengthen state State reform of education (1846), free and compulsory primary education (1869) Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the state authority Opposition to Tanzimat reforms Religious conservatives critical of attack on Islamic law and tradition Young Ottomans wanted more reform: freedom, autonomy, decentralization High-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks on the sultan's power Cycles of reform and repression 1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a constitutional government New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876 -1909) Proved an autocrat: suspended constitution, dissolved parliament, and punished liberals Reformed army and administration: became source of the new opposition The Young Turks Called for universal suffrage, equality, freedom, secularization, women's rights Forced Abd al-Hamid to restore constitution, dethroned him (1909) Nationalistic: favored Turkish dominance within empire, led to Arab

RUSSIA: EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE Crimean War Shows need for reform Serfdom Issue Russia needed

RUSSIA: EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE Crimean War Shows need for reform Serfdom Issue Russia needed work force in order to industrial Serfdom not efficient Emancipation of serfs by Alexander II begun in 1863 Serfs gained right to own land, got most of the land from nobles Serfs had no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax on land: kept them in permanent debt Tsar was careful to preserve aristocratic order; Political and legal reforms followed 1864: creation of zemstvos Local assemblies with representatives from all classes A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power

RUSSIAN REPRESSION & MARXISM Cycles of protest and repression Peasants Often landless, no political

RUSSIAN REPRESSION & MARXISM Cycles of protest and repression Peasants Often landless, no political power Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform Social Protest Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870 s Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a Russian perspective Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881 Nicholas II (1894 -1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler Marxism and the Reality of Russia Marx foresaw a revolution by workers Russia lacked lack worker base; society was largely peasant The Bolsheviks (Russian Marxists) & Vladimir Ilyich Lenin Argued that proletariat was developing in advance of revolution Felt Russia could have a revolution without a middle class phase Organized an elite revolutionary party to lead workers, peasants Organized the Bolsheviks Party was secretive as Russian secret police everywhere Infiltrated unions, workers organizations, peasant groups

MARXISM: Workers will stage a revolution and overthrow capitalism, state LENINISM: Will only succeed

MARXISM: Workers will stage a revolution and overthrow capitalism, state LENINISM: Will only succeed with the leadership of an elite group of revolutionaries

RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905 ● Russian Revolution of 1905 Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese

RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905 ● Russian Revolution of 1905 Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese War was cause Massive protests followed news of defeat ● Bloody Sunday massacre ● Sought to achieve ends without full scale revolution A Fizzled Revolution Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma Stolypin Reforms ● ● Unarmed workers shot down by government troops Peasants seized landlords' property, killed landlords Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in cities, factories ● ● Workers mounted general strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow Reforms allowed peasants to buy land; end redemptive payments Army failed to support revolution For the Future Nicholas II was weak, ill-advised, unwilling to end autocracy Russian Marxists emboldened, reorganized, radicalized Peasants, workers radicalized, unlikely to cooperate in future

OPIUM WARS ● 1795 Maccauley Mission and After ● Opium trade ● A serious

OPIUM WARS ● 1795 Maccauley Mission and After ● Opium trade ● A serious threat to Qing dynasty by 19 th century Cohong system restricted foreign merchants to Canton ● China had much to offer, but little demand for European products ● East India Company cultivated opium to trade for Chinese goods British found that Chinese would trade for opium ● Opium draining revenue, destroying economy, society The Opium War (1839 -1842) ● British send diplomatic, trade delegation to China ● Chinese tell British they are not interested in trade Forced British, Europeans to trade through Canton ● Chinese exported silks, porcelains, teas for silver ● Chinese refused to trade for manufactures Commissioner Lin Zexu directed to stop trade Lin confiscated, destroyed 20, 000 chests of opium British reaction British retaliated, easily crushed Chinese forces, destroyed Grand Canal British begin using Hong Kong and five other ports

CHINA: UNEQUAL TREATIES ● Unequal treaties forced trade concessions from Qing dynasty ● Treaty

CHINA: UNEQUAL TREATIES ● Unequal treaties forced trade concessions from Qing dynasty ● Treaty of Nanjing, 1842 ● Britain gained right to opium trade Called unequal treaties ● Made with western countries and Japan ● Extraterritoriality Foreigners not subject to Chinese laws ● By 1900, China lost control of economy to foreigners Foreigners invest in China, control industry Spheres of influence eroded Chinese power Foreign powers seized Chinese tribute states Effective partition of China by 1898 ● China carved into spheres of economic influence Chinese government ineffective Foreign merchants, missionaries free to run about country ●

CHINA UNDER PRESSURE ● The Taiping rebellion ● Reform frustrated ● Internal turmoil in

CHINA UNDER PRESSURE ● The Taiping rebellion ● Reform frustrated ● Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth century ● Population and poverty strained resources ● Other problems: official corruption, drug addiction The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by Hong Xiuquan ● Called for end of Qing dynasty; resented Manchu rule Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign troops ● Gentry sided with government; regional armies had European weapons The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860 -1895) ● Blended Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology ● Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries, steel foundries, academies ● Not enough industry to make a significant change ● Powerful empress dowager Cixi opposed changes The hundred-days reforms (1898) ● Two Confucian scholars advised radical changes in imperial system ● Movement crushed by Cixi; emperor imprisoned; reformers killed The Boxer rebellion Local militia attacked foreigners, foreign legations, Chinese Christians Crushed by European and Japanese troops Chinese forced to sign humiliating treaties Collapse of Qing dynasty in 1912

JAPAN: SHOGUN TO EMPEROR ● European wanted her to reverse long-standing closed door policy

JAPAN: SHOGUN TO EMPEROR ● European wanted her to reverse long-standing closed door policy 1853 U. S. Commodore Perry sailed U. S. fleet to Tokyo Bay, demanded entry Japan forced to accept unequal treaties with U. S. , other western countries The end of Tokugawa rule British, French, Russians demand, receive similar treaties to US Widespread opposition to shogun rule, especially in provinces The Meiji restoration, 1868 Dissident Samurai militia loyal to emperor defeats Shogun’s troops The boy emperor Mutsuhito, or Meiji, regained authority; Shogunate abolished End of almost seven centuries of military rule in Japan

JAPAN: MEIJI ERA Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise Social Revolution: 1873 - 1876 Daimyo

JAPAN: MEIJI ERA Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise Social Revolution: 1873 - 1876 Daimyo and samurai lost status, privileges; class abolished Some went into business, created western-style companies (Mitsubishi) Revamping tax system Converted grain taxes to a fixed money tax: more reliable income for state Constitutional government, the emperor's "gift" to the people in 1889 Emperor remained supreme, limited the rights of the people Legislature, the Diet, was an opportunity for debate and dissent but limited powers Remodeling the economy and infrastructure Transportation: railroads, telegraph, steamships Industry: privately owned, government controlled arms industry Zaibatsu: powerful financial combines merged banking, manufacturing, merchants Costs of economic development borne by Japanese people ● Land tax Peasant uprisings crushed; little done to alleviate suffering Japan became an industrial power in a single generation Ended unequal treaties in 1899 Defeated China in 1895 and Russia in 1904