Social Structure Social Interaction process by which people

Social Structure Social Interaction: process by which people act toward or respond to other people and is the foundation for all relationships and groups in society. Social Structure: refers to the ways in which people respond to one another- it is the network of interrelated statuses and roles that guide human interaction. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Write Down True or False 1. Most homeless people choose to be homeless. 2. Homelessness is largely a self-inflicted condition 3. Homeless people do not work 4. Most homeless people are mentally ill 5. Homeless people typically panhandle [beg for money] so that they can buy alcohol and drugs. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure 6. Most homeless people are heavy drug users 7. A large number of homeless persons are dangerous 8. Homeless persons have existed throughout the history of the United States 9. One out of every homeless persons is a child 10. Some homeless people have attended college and graduated school. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Homeless Activity • Eighner’s diving activities reflect a specific social behavior- all activities in life are social in nature – Like scavenging and living on the streets • Homeless people and domiciled persons [people who live in homes] live in social worlds that have predictable patterns of social interaction • We study homelessness to see an example of how a social problem occurs and how they perpetuated in the social structure Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure • Social structure is essential for – survival of society – well-being of individual – it provides a social web of familial support and social relationships that connects us to the larger society • Homeless don’t have that link so – a loss of personal dignity – Loss of a sense of moral worth • The homeless are not homeless by choice: remember that! Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Chapter 3: Social Structure Section 1: Building Blocks of Social Structure Section 2: Types of Social Interaction Section 3: Types of Societies Section 4: Groups within Society Section 5: Structure of Formal Organizations Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Section 1: Building Blocks of Social Structure Main Idea • Social structure is the network of interrelated statuses and roles that guides human interaction. A status is a socially defined position in society, while a role is the behavior attached to a status. Reading Focus • What do sociologists mean by the term status? • How are status and roles related? • What are social institutions? Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Status A social structure is a network of interrelated statuses and roles that guide human interaction. • A status is a socially defined position in a group or in a society • A role is the behavior-rights and obligations- expected of someone occupying a particular status. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Each individual in society occupies several statusesyou are students, sons, brother/sisters, Arabic… • Ascribed status is assigned according to standards beyond a person’s control • Not based on individual’s abilities, efforts, or accomplishments • Based on inherited traits or assigned automatically when they get to a certain age • Achieved status is acquired by an individual on the basis of some special sill, knowledge, or ability • People have control over these • Ex: any occupation, being lead part in a play, being a spouse, being a parent, being a high school or college graduate, or an athlete • Ex: male, female, teen, adult, family heritage, race Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the

Social Structure Master Status • Most people have many statuses, but a master status is the one that plays the greatest role in a person’s life. • It can be either ascribed or achieved. • In the United States, we mostly use achieved characteristics like occupation, wealth, marital status, and parenthood to serve as our master status • It can change: • As teen, master status might be being a student or athlete • As adult, it might be based on occupation • Elderly, it might be based on grandparenthood Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure You Play Many Different Roles • At home you play the role associated with the status of being a son or daughter • At school you perform the role associated with the status of being a student • All the roles have reciprocal roles: corresponding roles that define the patterns of interaction between related statuses – Cant fulfill role of husband if there is no wife – Doctor-Patient, Athlete-Coach, Employee-Employer, Leader-follower, salesclerk-customer Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Roles Role Expectations and Role Performance • Role expectations are the socially determined behaviors expected of a person performing a role • Doctors for example are expected to treat their patients with skills and care • Parents expected to provide emotional and physical security for their children • Role performance is the actual behaviors of a person and it may not match the behavior expected of society • Doctors who mistreat their patients • Parents who mistreat their children. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Role Conflict, Role Strain, and Role Exit • A role set is the different roles associated with a particular status. • Role conflict occurs when fulfilling the role expectations of one status makes it difficult to fulfill the role expectations of another status • Ex: Being a good employee interferes with being a good parent • Role strain occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the role expectations of a single status • Ex: manager who has to keep her workers positive as they are asked to work long overtime hours • Role exit is the process people go through to detach from a role that was previously central to their social identity. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Social Institutions • A social institution is a system of statuses, roles, values, and norms that is organized to satisfy one or more of the basic needs of society. – The family, the most universal social institution, takes responsibility for raising the young and teaching them accepted norms and values. – The economic institution organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. – The political institution is the system of norms that governs the exercise and distribution of power in society. – Education ensures the transmission of values, patterns of behavior, and certain skills and knowledge. – Religion provides a shared, collective explanation of the meaning of life. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure How do you interact with other people? SECTION 2: Types of Social Interaction Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure #1 Exchange • Exchange occurs when people interact in an effort to receive a reward or a return for their actions. • Reward might be tangible or intangible • Reciprocity is the idea that if you do something for someone, that person owes you something in return. • Basis of exchange interactions…rewards are material or nonmaterial • Exchange theory is the idea that people are motivated by selfinterest in their interactions with other people. • People do things for rewards; behaviors that are rewarded are repeated • When costs outweigh the rewards, individuals end the relationship • Maximizing rewards, minimizing costs Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Competition #2 Competition • Competition occurs when two or more people or groups oppose each other to achieve a goal that only one can attain. – Common in Western societies – Sometimes considered basis of capitalism and democracy – Advancement in business, school, sports through competition – Might motivate people to perform society’s needed roles – Can lead to psychological stress, a lack of cooperation, and conflict Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure #3 Conflict • Conflict is the deliberate attempt to control a person by force, to oppose someone, or to harm another person. – Has few rules of accepted conduct – Georg Simmel identified four sources of conflict: – war – conflict within groups – legal disputes – Clashes over ideology [religion or politics] – Positives of having conflict: – Can reinforce group boundaries – Strengthens group loyalty by focusing attention on an outside threat – Draws attention away from internal problems – Leads to social change by bringing problems to forefront and forcing opposing sides to seek solutions Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure #4 Cooperation • Cooperation occurs when two or more people or groups work together to achieve a goal that will benefit more than one person. – A social process that gets things done – May be used along with competition to motivate members to work harder for the group – MEDIATION!!! Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure #5 Accommodation is a state of balance between cooperation and conflict: give a little, take a little. Compromise Each party gives up something they want in order to come to an agreement Mediation Calling in a third party who guides the two parties toward an agreement Truce Temporarily brings a halt to the competition or conflict until a compromise can be reached Arbitration A third party makes a decision that is binding on both parties Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure SECTION 3: TYPES OF SOCIETIES The largest groups studied by sociologists are entire societies. Sociologists categorize societies according to subsistence strategies- the way in which a society uses technology to provide for the needs of its members Division of labor- is the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure In a preindustrial society food production is the main economic activity. #2 Pastoral Societies • Rely on domesticated animals • Lead a nomadic life • Fewer people produce food • Complex division of labor • Produce some items for trade • Have surplus of good so can support larger populations Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure #3 Horticultural Societies #4 Agricultural Societies • Grow fruits and vegetables in garden plots • Animals are used to plow fields • Irrigation increases crop yields • Many members are able to engage in specialized roles • Technological innovations allows them to plant more crops and can plant at various times • Cities are formed • Leaders are often hereditary • Marked by powerful armies and the construction of roads • Abandon bartering in order to make trade easier • Power often unequally distributed • Use slash-and-burn techniques • Must wait for rainy seasons to plant • Move to new plot when old becomes barren • Build semipermanent or permanent villages • Village size depends on amount of land for farming • Division of labor creates specialized roles • Economic and political systems more developed because of the settled life Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure S EA S E TH D OF D A S E RAL S U U T A L C ICU S R AG IETIE SOC Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Industrial Societies In an industrial society: • Production of food shifts to production of manufactured goods • Production moves from human and animal labor to machines • Increases food production and population • Numbers and kinds of jobs increase • Location of work changes to cities, away from the home • Social processes such as education take the place of family Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Reading Check Identify Cause and Effect How does industrialization lead to urbanization? Answer: Use of centralized power sources (water, steam) moves production from homes to factories; cities form as homes cluster around factories and other businesses, such as stores, are started nearby to serve the increasingly concentrated population Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Postindustrial Societies • Economic emphasis is on creation and exchange of information and services instead of manufacturing goods • United States is a postindustrial society • Standard of living improves • Education and science are important • Technological advances seen as key Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Contrasting Societies Values: Ferdinand Tonnies Unity: Emile Durkheim • Degree of shared values among social members • Pre-industrial: Held together by mechanical solidarity-close knit social relationships that result when a small group of people share the same values and perform the same tasks • Gemeinschaft: community • Strong sense of group solidarityclose and center on family and communities • Members know one another • Industrial Society- Held together • Preindustrial societies, rural by organic solidarityimpersonal social relationships • Gesellschaft: society that arise within increased job • Relationships are impersonal and often specializations temporary; based on need • So depend on one another • Traditional values are weak; individual for survival goals are more important than the group • Urban societies Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Sociology in Today’s World The New Barter One major development of agricultural societies was the creation of a money system. This system replaced the idea of barter- the practice of exchanging one good for another • As many as 450, 000 companies barter in America today. • Computer technology makes bartering easier. • They trade goods and services through a “barter exchange. ” • Barter allows companies to “buy” goods or services without using cash. • Barter exchanges make money on barter transactions. • Rapid growth of bartering is changing the economy of the United States. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Section 4: Groups Within Society Main Idea Sociologists classify societies according to how each uses technology to meet the needs of its members. Sociologists recognize three broad categories of society—preindustrial, and postindustrial. Reading Focus • What are the types of preindustrial societies? • What is the main economic activity in industrial societies? • How do postindustrial societies and industrial societies differ? • What concepts have sociologists used to contrast societies? Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Looking at features of group structure, characteristics of common types of groups and societies • Features of Group Structure – A group is a set of two or more people who interact on the basis of share expectations and who possess some degree of common identity • From two on a date • To 500 soldiers at boot camp Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Defining Groups • Size – Small or large • Quality – Intimate or formal • Four features: – Two or more people – Interaction occurs between members – Shared expectations – Must possess a sense of common identity Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS • Size • A dyad is two people. • A triad is three people. • A small group is a group with few enough members that everyone is able to interact face to face • Time • A group can be a one-time meeting or a lifetime. • Interaction is not continuous; there are breaks. • Organization • A formal group has clearly defined structure, goals, and activities. • An informal group has no official structure or rules of conduct. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure • Classify groups on the basis of the degree of intimacy that occurs among group members • Start with a description of the two opposite extremes and they run a line between them called the continuum – Line will show range of possible relationships Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure One example if the primary-secondary continuum PRIMARY GROUP SECONDARY GROUP RELATIONSHIPS FAMILY GROUPS OF FRIENDS RELATIONSHIPS SCHOOL CLASSROOM CLUB Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. JOB

Social Structure Types of Groups There are many kinds of groups. Most people belong to several. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Types of Groups (cont. ) Reference Groups In-Groups and Out-Groups • A group with whom an individual identifies and whose attitudes and values are adopted • In-group: any group that a person belongs to and identifies with • Can have both positive and negative effect on behavior • Out-group: any group that the person does not belong to or identify with Electronic Communities Social Networks • Have arisen with arrival of internet • The web of relationships across groups that occurs because of the many groups people belong to • Some reflect primary-group dynamics • No clear boundaries Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Section 5: The Structure of Formal Organizations Main Idea Formal organizations are complex secondary groups created to achieve specific goals. Most are structured as bureaucracies. Formal and informal structures can affect the efficiency of bureaucracies. Reading Focus • How do sociologists view formal organizations? • What are the main characteristics of Max Weber’s model of bureaucracies? • What types of relationships are found in formal organizations? • What problems do bureaucracies face? Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Formal Organizations • Formal organizations are large, complex secondary groups that have been established to achieve specific goals. • Schools, businesses, government agencies, religious organizations, youth organizations, political organizations, volunteer associations, professional associations, and labor unions are examples. • A bureaucracy is a ranked authority structure that operates according to specific rules and procedures…. came about in industrialized societies because of rationalization • Bureaucracies existed in ancient Egypt and China, but rose to prominence during the Industrial Revolution. • Rationalization refers to the process by which every feature of human behavior to calculation, measurement, and control. • Use it today to describe organizations that has many departments or bureaus Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Marx Weber’s Model of Bureaucracies- each bureaucracy has the following characteristics: 1. Division of labor – Work is divided among specialists with specific duties 2. Ranking of authority – There are clear-cut lines of responsibility; each person responsible to a supervisor at a higher level 3. Employment based on formal qualifications – Individuals are hired on the basis of tests, education, or experience. – Workers are replaceable. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Weber’s Model of Bureaucracies (cont’d. ) 4. Written rules and regulations – There are objective rules that identify each person’s responsibilities and authority of each person on the staff 5. Specific lines of promotion and advancement – Lines of promotion reward loyalty with job security and seniority. Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure • Organizations fit this ideal type to varying degrees – Not all are rigid – A non-rigid examples: • voluntary associations which are nonprofit associations formed to pursue some common interest – Membership by choice – Unpaid volunteers – Examples: amateur sports teams, professional associations, service clubs, political interest groups Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Relationships in Formal Organizations Informal structures based on strong primary relationships may exist within the most rigid of bureaucracies where members within this rigid system might be really close and friendly • Called “bureaucracy’s other face” • First noted in study of Western Electric Company • Conformity to the norm enforced through negative sanctions…you do something against the team, the team will punish you Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Problems of Bureaucracies Weber’s Bureaucracy • Views bureaucracy in a positive light – Gets things done with speed and efficiency – Best way to organize large numbers of people to attain a large goal – Create order by clearly defining tasks – Provide stability- people come and go, but organization continues – Lots of material goods at reasonable prices Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Flaws of Bureaucracy • Several significant weaknesses 1. Goal might be self-continuation and individual goals are lost 2. Individuals develop bureaucratic personalities- job becomes a ritual, and creativity is stifled – Employees might be promoted beyond their level of competence [Laurence J Peter in The Peter Principle] 3. “red tape” involved in dealing with them: employees play a limited role in the overall structure; their knowledge and power is limited; leads to bureaucratic delay – Spend time filling out forms or going from one department to the next 4. Results in oligarchy- power concentrated in the hands of a few people at the top of the bureaucracy in a tendency labeled the iron law of oligarchy Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure 5. Parkinson’s law: “work expands to fill the time available for its completion” Ex: civil servant overworked so can 1. resign 2. cut work in half by sharing it with a new colleague 3. demand assistance of two subordinates #1: UNACCEPTABLE because you’ll lose pension, benefits…. #2 UNACCEPTABLE because now have a rival for promotion #3 ACCEPTABLE because it will make your job look more important because you now control two workers…there must be two so that each is kept in fear of the other person’s promotion ----until they complain they’re being overworked and they get two subordinates each the original now has six he’s in charge of and that calls for a promotion but he’s more overworked because all six send him work to be approved and he must work more to catch up. . late hours are a penalty of success Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Social Structure Current Research in Sociology The Mc. Donaldization of Society Max Weber suggested that as society progressed it would become increasingly guided by rules, regulations, and formal structures. George Ritzer called this tendency Mc. Donaldization. • Four aspects to Mc. Donaldization: efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control • Operations are performed to specific guidelines that maximize efficiency • Pros: convenient, familiar • Cons: removal of human aspect, no room for innovation, reduction of face-to-face interactions • Uniformity across production lines results in uniform products Original Content Copyright © Holt Mc. Dougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.