Social Structure Chapter 4 Building Blocks of Social

Social Structure Chapter 4

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Social structure gives society its enduring characteristics and make patterns of human behavior predictable. • Social structure is the network of interrelated statuses and roles that guide human interaction. • A status is a socially defined position in a group or society. • A role is the expected behavior of someone of a particular status. • Every individual in a society has a status. • Example: • Father • Wife • African American

Building Blocks of Social Structure Ascribed status • This type of status is assigned to an individual on the basis of the person’s inherited traits or when they reach a certain age. • Example • Teenager vs Adult • White vs Black • Male vs Female Achieved status • This type of status is assigned based on an individual’s efforts such as skills, speech, knowledge, and/or abilities. • Example • Basketball players • Billionaire

Building Blocks of Social Structure Master status • This type of status plays the greatest role in shaping a person’s life and determining his/her social identity. • Master status can be ascribed or achieved. • A person’s master status changes over the course of his/her life. • Examples: • Teenagers master status is typically that of a student or an athlete • Adult master status is typically that of one’s occupation

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Roles • Statuses serve as social categories and roles are the component of social structure that bring statuses to life. • You may play several roles for example: • At home you may be a son or daughter • At school you are a student, athlete, friend, ect…

Building Blocks of Social Structure Reciprocal roles • Most roles you perform have reciprocal roles. • Reciprocal roles are corresponding roles that define the patterns of interaction between related statuses. • For example one cannot fill the role of husband, if someone else does not perform the role of a wife

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Role expectations are behaviors expected of a person performing a role • Examples • Doctors care for patients • Parents provide security for children • Police officers uphold the law

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Role performance is the actual role behavior. • This does not always match expected behavior expected by society. • Example: • Some parents mistreat their children • Police officer may break the law

Building Blocks of Social Structure • Even within a single status, there are many interrelated roles to perform. • Sociologists call the different roles attached to a single status a role set. • Role conflict occurs when fulfilling the role expectations of another status. • To be a good employee you must go to work, but to be a good parent you must stay home to care for your sick child. • Role strain occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the role expectations of a single status • The boss must maintain the morale of workers while getting them to work long periods over time

Building Blocks of Structure • When statuses and roles are organized to satisfy one or more of the basic needs of society, the group is called a social institution. • The basic needs of society include: • • • Physical support Emotional support Transmitting knowledge Producing goods and services Maintaining social control The major social institutions include: • • The family The economy Politics Education Religion Media Medicine science

Types of Interaction • When you play a roles, you interact with others. • Some interactions help stabilize the social structure. • Some promote change. • Examples: • • • Exchange Competition Conflict Cooperation Accommodation

Types of Interaction Exchange • When people interact to receive a reward or return, an exchange has taken place. • Almost all daily interaction involves exchange • Examples: dating, family, friends, … • Reciprocity is the idea that if you do something for someone, that person owes you something in return. • Example: getting an allowance for doing chores. • The exchange theory states that people are motivated by selfinterests in their interactions with people • However, if the cost outweighs the reward people often end the relationship

Types of Interaction Competition • Competition occurs when two or more individuals /groups oppose each other to a achieve a goal that only one can attain. • Examples • Valedictorian • Super Bowl Champions • Some sociologist consider competition to be the cornerstone of capitalist economic systems and the democratic form of government. • However, competition cause conflict, stress, inequality, and a lack of cooperation in social relationships

Types of Interaction • Conflict is the deliberate attempt to control a person by force, to oppose someone, or to harm another person. • Unlike competition, conflict has few rules of conduct • Examples: • Snubbing a classmate • Killing an enemy • Four sources of conflict have been identified: • • Wars Disagreements within groups Legal dispute Clashes of ideology • Religion • politics

Types of Interaction • Although we tend to think of conflict as something negative, it can actually serve useful purposes such as: • reinforcing group boundaries • Strengthening group loyalty by focusing attention to an outside theat. • Social change

Types of Interaction • Cooperation occurs when two or more people/groups work together to achieve a goal that will benefit both sides. • Examples: • Sports teams • NAFTA • United Nations

Types of Interaction • Accommodation is the balance between conflict and cooperation. • Example: You pay the owner of a motel $60 to accommodate you by letting you stay in their facility • Accommodation comes in many forms such as • • Compromise Truce Mediation Arbitration

Types of Societies • Role behavior often takes place in groups. • Groups are a set of people who interact on the basis of shared expectations and who poses some degree of common identity. • The largest most complex groups are societies. • Subsistence strategies is the way a society uses technology to provide the needs of its members. • Preindustrial • Industrial • Postindustrial

Types of societies • Preindustrial society is based on food production. • Pre-industrial societies are subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food • • Hunting and gathering Pastoral Horticulture Agriculure

Types of societies Hunting and gathering societies • This type of society gathers food daily • Wild plants • Wild animals • Nomadic • They move around in search of food • Typically around 60 people • Statuses are relatively equal • Decisions made via agreement • Family is the main social unit

Types of societies Pastoral societies • These societies rely on a domesticated herd of animals to meet their food needs. • Nomadic • Move herds from pasture to pasture • Division of labor • The specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities • Producing • tools • Weapons • jewelry

Types of societies Horticultural societies • These societies have some level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. • Slash and burn method • Human labor • Simple tools • Villages • 30 people to as many as 3, 000 • Specialized roles • Shamans (religious leaders • Inequalities among people • Hereditary craftsmanship

Types of societies Agricultural societies • In these types of societies animals are used to pull plows in the fields. • Technological innovations allow agriculturalists to plant more crops than human labor alone • Irrigation • Tractors • More crops = larger population • Specialized roles leads to developments of cities • Power becomes more centralized

Types of societies Agricultural societies continued • Leaders in agricultural societies • Build armies • Build infrastructure • Efficient infrastructure = trade • Barter is the exchange of a good or service and is used to facilitate trade • System of writing to keep government records • Sharp status differences • Landowners • Wealth and power • Peasants • Labor force

Types of societes Industrial societies • In these societies emphasis shifts from the production of food to the production of manufactured goods. • Due to changes in production methods • Use of machines rather than human/animal labor • Industrialization has had the following effects: • increase food production, thus increasing the population • Economic changes • Agriculture to factory/industrial work

Types of societies Industrialization continued • Urbanization is the concentration of populations in cities. • Nature of work changes from the preindustrial societies • • • Craftsmen replaced by unskilled workers Machines replace people Compulsory education Religion is challenged by science More freedom to compete for social positions • Ascribed status to achieved status

Types of societies Postindustrial societies • In these types of societies the economy is involved in providing and services. • Many social changes result from transition from industrial to postindustrial society. • • • Higher standard of living Improved wages Emphasis on science and education Technological advances Personal fullfillment Belief in rights • Social equality and democracy

Types of societies Contrasting societies • According to Emile Durkheim used the concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity to describe social relationships in preindustrial and industrial societies. • Mechanical solidarity is what held together preindustrial societies. • People share the same values and perform the same tasks • Organic solidarity happens when societies become more complex • Impersonal relationships occur with increased job specialization • Societal relations are based on needs rather than values

Groups within societies • Groups • A group has four major features • It must have two or more features • Interaction among members • Members must have shared expectations • Members must possess some sense of common identity

Groups within societies Interaction, shared expectations, and a common identity distinguish a group from an aggregate or social category. • Aggregate is when people gather in the same place at the same time, but lack organization of or lasting patterns of interactions. • Social Category is a means of classifying people according to a shared trait or common status. • • Women Teenagers LGBT Americans

Groups within societies • Some groups are very small and other are huge. • Thee smallest possible group is a dyad or group with two members. • If one member leaves the group, the group ends • A three person group is called a triad • A single person can not disband this group • A small group consists of 15 people or less • In groups of more than 15 there is a breakup of the group into smaller groups.

Groups within societies • Some groups meet everyday while others may meet sporadically • Examples: • Everyday – families • Sporadically – monthly taco club

Groups within societies The organization of a group can be either formal or informal. • Formal Group • The structure, goal, and activities of the group are clearly defined. • Example: SGA = rules and structured meetings. • Informal Group • No official structure or established rules of conduct • Example: Your group of friends = no rules or established meetings

Groups within societies • We are all members of different types of groups. The most common groups recognized by sociologists include: • • • Primary groups Secondary groups Reference groups In-groups Out-groups E-communities

Groups within societies • The easiest way to classify groups is to degree of intimacy that occurs between the members. • Primary Groups • A small group of people who interact over a relatively long period of time and on a direct and personal basis. • Families • Secondary Groups • Group interaction is impersonal and temporary • Casual and limited in personal ivolvment • coworkers

Groups within societies • People usually perform their social roles and judge their own behaviors according to standards set by a particular group. • Reference groups are any group with whom individuals identify and whose attitudes and values are adopted. • Reference groups can have positive and negative effects on behavior. • Example: • Group of friends • school clubs • occupations

Groups within societies • All groups have boundaries such as methods of distinguishing between member and nonmembers. • In-group • The group a member belongs to and identifies with. • Members must: • Separate themselves from other groups • View themselves positively • Compete with outgroups • Out-group • Any group a person does not belong to or identify with.

Groups within societies • E-communities are groups of people who interact with on another regularly on the internet. • Members exhibit behavior similar to those of primary groups. • They argue • Exchange ideas • Share intimate details of their lives

Groups within societies • Social networks are the web of relationships that is formed by the sum total of a person’s interactions with other people. • Unlike groups, social networks don’t have clear boundaries and do not give rise to a common sense of identity. • Example: • Knowing the right person to get a job or not.

Groups within society Group functions • Groups must define their boundaries so that members can tell who belongs and who does not. • The group may use things such as: • • Symbols Uniforms Gestures language

Groups within societies • Groups must also select leaders. • A leader is a person who influence the attitude and opinions of others. • Examples of leaders: • • • Executive chef CEO Presidents Captain Priests

Groups within societies There are two types of leaders: • Instrumental leaders • Task oriented • Example: Football Coach • Expressive leaders • Emotion oriented • Example: Cheerleaders

Groups within societies • Groups also need to perform the related functions of setting goals, assigning tasks, and making decisions. • To achieve these goals, groups must assign tasks to members. • Groups must also control their members behavior. • Sanctions are used to ensure conformity • Conformity is linked to the importance that people attach to a group.

The Structure of Formal Organizations • Formal organization is the term to describe large, complex secondary groups that have been established to achieve a specific goals. • Examples: • Schools • Government • Youth organizations • Bureaucracies are the most structured of formal organizations. • Authority structure that operates to specific rules and procedures. • They rationally organize groups to complete a set of goals • Rationalization is subjugating every feature of human behavior to calculation, measurement, and control. The Industrial Revolution helped with rationality

The Structure of Formal Organizations Max Weber’s Model of Bureaucracies • Division of Labor • Specialists perform specific duties • Ranking of Authority • Workers report to supervisors • Employment based on formal applications • Specific qualifications for the job (education, experience, ect) • Rules and regulations • Procedures that identify the exact responsibilities and authority of each person on the staff. • Specific lines of promotion and advancement • Job security • Senority

The Structure of Formal Organizations • The structure of formal organizations can include • government agencies • Large business corporations • Voluntary associations are typically nonprofit organizations formed to purse a common interest. • Charities • Political interest groups

The Structure of Formal Organizations • Informal structures based on strong primary relationships may exist within bureaucracies. • The President of the US playing Golf with foreign leaders • Sometimes informal structure occurs among workers. • Ridicule or ostracizing others who don’t conform.

The Structure of Formal Organizations • Weber argued that bureaucracies create order by clearly defining job tasks and rewards. • So why do bureaucracies sometimes less effective than Weber suggests? • • They lose sight of their goals Abandoning it’s original purpose Tendency to result in oligarchies (few rule the many) Tendency to of all organizations to promote their own interests over the interests of the organization. • The iron law of oligarchy is the tendency of organizations to become increasingly dominated by smaller groups.