Slide 1 A Topical Approach to LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

Slide 1 A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 13 Moral Development, Values, and Religion John W. Santrock © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 2 Domains of Moral Development What Is Moral Development? • Changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong • An intrapersonal dimension: regulates activities • An interpersonal dimension: regulates social interactions and arbitrates conflict © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 3 Domains of Moral Development Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development Justice and rules are conceived of Heteronymous as unchangeable properties of the morality world, removed from the control of people (4 -7 years) Autonomous morality Immanent justice Becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people; in judging an action, one should consider actor’s intentions as well as consequences (10 years and older) If a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 4 Domains of Moral Development Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Moral reasoning unfolds in universal stages – Moral thoughts constructed as one passes through childhood, adolescence, and adulthood – Tested by story with moral dilemma – Theory of 3 levels, two stages in each © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 5 Domains of Moral Development The Kohlberg Stages • Preconventional reasoning — lowest level – Good or bad based on external rewards and punishment – Stage 1. Heteronomous morality (punishmentobedience orientation) — tied to punishment – Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange (law-and-order orientation) — tied to equal exchange © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 6 Domains of Moral Development The Kohlberg Stages • Conventional reasoning — intermediate level – Individuals abide by certain standards, but are standards of others – Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity (good child orientation) — trust, caring, loyalty to others is basis of judgment – Stage 4. Social systems morality — judgments based on social order, law, justice, and duty © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 7 Domains of Moral Development The Kohlberg Stages • Postconventional reasoning — highest level – Individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore options, and decide own moral code – Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights — evaluates validity of actual laws and social systems for preserving and protecting fundamental human rights and values – Stage 6. Universal ethical principles — develops moral standard based on universal human rights © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 8 Moral Development • Kohlberg developed a model of moral development based on responses to moral dilemmas. 8 © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 9 Moral Development— Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 1: punishment-obedience orientation Stage 2: instrumental-exchange orientation CONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 3: good child orientation Stage 4: law-and-order orientation POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 5: social-contract orientation Stage 6: universal ethics orientation 9 © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 10 10 © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 11 Moral Development • Lawrence Kohlberg contended that moral thinking likewise proceeds through a series of stages – from a preconventional morality of self-interest (gains rewards, avoids punishment) – to a conventional morality that cares for others and upholds laws and rules (gains approval, does duty; obeys because rules exist) – to (in some people) a postconventional morality of agreed-upon rights or basic ethical principles. 11 © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 12 Preconventional (birth to adolescence) • Stage 1 - punishment and obedience orientation – Self-centered – Rewards, punishment – Will not admit intentionality • Stage 2 - instrumental-exchange orientation – Aware of perspective of others – Reciprocal-exchange of favors 12 © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 13 Conventional (adolescence to young adulthood)- other focussed • Stage 3 - good child orientation – Being nice to gain approval – People judged by intentions of their behavior • Stage 4 - law-and-order orientation – Takes into account larger perspective- society – One’s duty to respect law and order 13 © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Postconventional (adulthood)- develop own standards of right and wrong/abstract Slide 14 • Stage 5 - social-contract orientation – Appreciate underlying purposes of laws – Interests in majority versus individual – OK to steal drug to save a life • Stage 6 - universal ethics orientation – “right” is determined by universal ethics – Human dignity, nonviolence, freedom, equality – Regardless of whether agree, will conform 14 © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 15 Domains of Moral Development Kohlberg’s Stages • Moral stages appeared later than predicted • 7 th stage added: cosmic perspective • Peer interaction critical influence • Kohlberg’s critics – Moral reasons (overemphasized) can be shelter for immoral behavior (underemphasized) – Faulty research: difficult to measure morality – Culturally biased © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 16 Domains of Moral Development Families and Moral Development • Family processes unimportant in children’s moral development: use inductive discipline • Gender perspectives – Korlberg’s theory has justice perspective — focus on rights of individual, one stands alone and independently – Gilligan’s care perspective — views people in terms of connectedness with others; girls interpret moral dilemmas in terms of human relationships © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 17 Domains of Moral Development Social Conventional Reasoning • Focuses on thoughts about social consensus and convention – Conventional rules • Created to control behavioral irregularities and maintain social system • Arbitrary and subject to individual judgment – Concepts of social organization © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 18 Domains of Moral Development Moral Reasoning • Emphasizes ethical issues • Moral rules not arbitrary; obligatory, widely accepted, and somewhat impersonal – Violations are affronts to ethical standards – Involve concepts of justice – Not created by social consensus and convention © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 19 Domains of Moral Development Moral Behavior • Basic Processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation: behavior is situation-specific • Resistance to Temptation and Self-Control – Influenced by cognitive factors • Social Cognitive Theory of Morality – Distinguishes between moral competence (ability to produce moral behaviors) and moral performance (actually performing them) © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 20 Domains of Moral Development Moral Feeling • Psychoanalytic Theory – Foundation of moral behavior is avoid guilt feelings – Superego: moral branch of personality (2 parts) • Ego ideal — rewards for acting ideal standards • Conscience — punishes for disapproved acts • Children internalize parents’ standards © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 21 Domains of Moral Development Empathy • Reacting to another’s feelings with emotional response similar to other’s feelings • Cognitive component — perspective-taking • Develops from infant’s global empathy • Children’s ability depends on awareness that people have different reactions to situations © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 22 Domains of Moral Development Emotion and Moral Development: The Contemporary Perspective • When strongly felt, both positive and negative feelings contribute to moral behavior – Positive feelings: empathy, sympathy, admiration, self-esteem – Negative feelings: anger, outrage, shame, guilt – Some emotions undergo developmental change throughout childhood and beyond; interwoven with cognitive and social aspects of development © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 23 Domains of Moral Development Emotion and Moral Development: The Contemporary Perspective • Three key dimensions of moral development – Thoughts – Behavior – Feelings • Recently, a 4 th: moral personality – Moral identity: willpower, integrity, moral desire – Moral character: convictions, persistence, focus – Moral exemplars: being honest and dependable © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 24 Contexts of Moral Development Parenting • Piaget and Kohlberg discounted parents’ input to children’s moral development • Parents see themselves in primary role – Relational quality – Parental discipline • Love withdrawal • Power assertion • Induction • Peers have primary role © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 25 Contexts of Moral Development Parenting • Parents see themselves in primary role – Proactive strategies: two parents – Conversational dialogue – Parenting recommendations • Warm and supportive, not punitive • Use inductive discipline • Provide opportunities for children • Involve children in decisions • Model moral behaviors • Provide info and foster internal morality © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 26 Contexts of Moral Development Schools — The Hidden Curriculum • Pervasive moral atmosphere in schools • Character Education – Direct moral education approach teaches students basic moral literacy to prevent immoral behavior, doing harm to themselves or others • Values Clarification – Helps clarify what life is for, what to work for – Students encouraged to define own values and understand others’ values © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 27 Contexts of Moral Development Schools — The Hidden Curriculum • Cognitive Moral Education – Students should value things like democracy and justice as moral reasoning develops – Instructor is facilitator, not director • Service Learning – Form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to community – Benefits student volunteers and recipients © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 28 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior Prosocial Behavior • Altruism and Reciprocity – Altruism: unselfish interest in helping another person, mostly evoked by empathy – Some argue altruism does not exist; everyone benefits from performing the action – Many prosocial behaviors involve reciprocity; the obligation to return a favor with a favor © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 29 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior Prosocial Behavior • Sharing and fairness – Most sharing in first 3 years of life: non-empathic – At about age 4: combination of empathic awareness and adult encouragement – In elementary years: complicated ideas of fairness – Throughout history: involved principles of equality, merit, and benevolence © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 30 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior Prosocial Behavior • Sharing and fairness – Females engage in more prosocial behavior than males – Older adults engage in more altruistic behavior and volunteering • Volunteering linked to positive outcomes • More satisfied in life, less depressed anxious, better physical health © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 31 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior • Conduct disorder – Juvenile delinquency: adolescents who commit illegal acts • Consequences of early and late onset • Rates among minority groups and lowersocioeconomic-status youth © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 32 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior Antecedents of Delinquency • Authority conflict • Covert Acts • Overt Aggression • Not exclusively lower-SES phenomenon; characteristics of lower-SES culture can promote delinquency – High-status traits for boys – Affected by family and peer relationships © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 33 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior Youth Violence • At-risk youth – Early involvement with drugs and alcohol – Easy access to weapons, especially handguns – Association with antisocial, deviant peer groups – Pervasive exposure to violence in the media – School violence is national concern • Can violent behavior be predicted and prevented © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 34 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior Reducing Youth Violence • Oregon Social Learning Center recommends – Recommit to raising children safely and effectively – Make prevention a reality – Give more support to schools – Forge effective partnerships among families, schools, social service systems, churches, and other agencies © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Slide 35 Values • Beliefs and attitudes about the way things should be – Measured by asking what one’s goals are – Self-fulfillment and self-expression can lead to self-destruction, loneliness, and alienation – Self-fulfillment and commitment to others can lead to successful adjustment © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 36 Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Piaget’s Stages of Religious Thought Preoperational intuitive up to 7 -8 years Religious thoughts unsystematic and fragmented Concrete operational 7 -8 to 13 Focused on details of -14 pictures and stories Formal operational 14 onward Abstract religious understanding © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Slide 37 Parenting and Religion • Societies use many methods to ensure people carry on religious traditions – Most adults adopt religious teachings of upbringing – Most religious change or re-awakenings occur in adolescence – Positive relationship or secure attachment with parents make adolescents more likely to adopt religious orientation of parents © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Slide 38 Adolescence • Religion important to most adolescents • Those viewing religion as meaningful are linked to positive outcomes – Lower rates of delinquency and drug use – Better grades for low-income students – Better ability to cope with problems © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Slide 39 Religion and Identity Development • Self-reported altruism – Occurs during adolescence and emerging adulthood – Identity integration related to moral values and intrinsic religious orientation – Churchgoing has positive benefits on prosocial/caring behaviors and adolescent sexual activity © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Slide 40 Religion and Spirituality in Adulthood • Important to adults around the world – 70% of Americans religious • More important to women than men • Americans becoming less committed to particular religious faiths • Individual differences in religion in middle adulthood © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Slide 41 Religion and Health • Religious sect members resist using medical treatments and pain-relieving medications • Positive link between religious commitment and health – Lifestyle: lower drug use – Social networks: more connected to others – Coping with stress; more comfort and support © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Slide 42 Religion in Older Adults • Increased spirituality in late middle to late adulthood – Increased more for women than men – Linked to spirituality in early adulthood – Faith is most significant influence in one’s life – Put faith into practice more often – Highest commitment linked to highest self-esteem © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Slide 43 Religion in Older Adults • Psychological benefits – Derived sense of meaning in life – Higher levels of life-satisfaction – Face impending death, accept losses of age – Find meaningfulness – Social community, generativity © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Slide 44 Meaning in Life • Need for – Purpose – Values – A sense of efficacy – Self-worth © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Slide 45 13 The End © 2008 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.