Skull Thoracic cage ribs and sternum Vertebral column

Skull Thoracic cage (ribs and sternum) Vertebral column Sacrum Ch. 7 The Skeleton (a) Anterior view Cranium Facial bones Clavicle Scapula Sternum Rib Humerus Vertebra Radius Ulna Carpals Phalanges Metacarpals Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges Figure 7. 1 a

Skeletal System • Composed of bones, cartilage, joints, and ligaments • Accounts for 20% of body mass • 30 lbs in a 160 lb person • Bones – most of skeleton • Cartilage – isolated areas – nose, parts of ribs, joints • Ligaments – connect bones and reinforce joints • Joints – allow for motility

Axial Skeleton • 80 bones segregated into 3 major regions • Skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage • Forms: 1. Longitudinal axis of body 2. Supports head, neck, and trunk 3. Protects brain, spinal cord, and organs of the thorax

Skull • • • Body’s most complex bone structure Formed by cranial and facial bones – 22 in all Cranium – cranial bones Enclose and protect the brain Attachment sites for head and neck muscles

Skull • Facial Bones 1. Form framework of the face 2. Contain cavities for special sense organs – sight, taste, and smell 3. Provide openings for air and food passage 4. Secure the teeth 5. Anchor facial muscles of expression

Skull • • Bones Most are flat bones except for mandible firmly united by interlocking joints – sutures Major sutures – 1. 2. 3. 4. Coronal Sagittal Squamous lambdoid

Bones of cranium (cranial vault) Coronal suture Squamous suture Lambdoid suture Facial bones (a) Cranial and facial divisions of the skull Figure 7. 2 a

Skull - Overview Lopsided, hallow, bony sphere Anterior – facial bones Rest – cranium Cranium – divided into vault and base Cranial vault – calvaria – forms superior, lateral, and posterior aspects • Cranial base or floor – inferior aspect - internal bony ridges – anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae • Brian fits in snuggly • • •

Anterior cranial fossa Middle cranial fossa Posterior cranial fossa (b) Superior view of the cranial fossae Figure 7. 2 b

Skull - Overview • Smaller cavities – – Middle and inferior ear – Nasal cavities and orbits • 85 names openings – – Formina – Canals – Fissures, Etc. • Passageway for spinal cord, blood vessels, and cranial nerves (I-XII)

Cranium • 8 bones • 1. Frontal Bone – anterior cranium • Articulates posteriorly with paired parietal bones via – coronal suture • Anterior part – vertical squamous part – forehead • Extends posteriorly forming superior walls of orbits and most of anterior cranial fossa – supports frontal lobes of the brain • Subraorbital margin – pierced by supraorbital forman (notch) which allows artery and nerve to pass to forehead • Smooth portion between orbits – glabella • Just inferior – meets nasal bones at frontonasal suture • Frontal sinuses

Frontal bone Glablla Frontonasal suture Supraorbital foramen (noch) Supraorbital margin (a) Anterior view Mandibular symphysis Figure 7. 4 a

Cranium 2. Parietal Bones • 2 large bones • Curved, rectangular bones form most of the superior and lateral aspects • Bulk of the cranial vault • 4 largest sutures where parietal bones articulate 1. Coronal suture – parietal meets frontal 2. Sagittal suture – parietals meets superiorly 3. Lambboid suture – parietal meets occipital posteriorly 4. Squamous suture – parietal and temporal meet at lateral aspect

Parietal bone Figure 7. 4 a

Cranium 3. Occipital Bone • Forms most of skulls posterior wall and base • Articulates anteriorly with paired parietal and temporal – lambdoid and occipitomastoid sutures • Joins sphenoid bone in cranial floor • Projection – pharyngeal tubercle

Occipital bone (a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull Figure 7. 5 a

Cranium 3. Occipital Bone • Internally – forms walls of posterior cranial fossa – supports cerebellum • Base – foramen magnum – through which brain connects with spinal cord • Flanked laterally by 2 occipital condyles – aciculate with first vertebrae – permits nodding • Hypoglossal canal – cranial nerve XII passes • External occipital protuberance – median protrusion • Other ridges and crests mark bones

Occipital bone (a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull Figure 7. 5 a

Cranium 4. Temporal Bones – • Line inferior to parietal bones and meet them at squamous sutures • Form inferolateral aspects of skull and part of the cranial floor • Complicated shape – 4 major areas (regions) • Squamous, mastoid, tympanic, and petrous

Temporal bone (a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull Figure 7. 5 a

Cranium 4. Temporal Bones – • Squamous Region – abuts squamous suture • Bar like zygomatic process – meets zygomatic bones of the face • Form zygomatic arch – projections of cheek • Mandibular fossa – receive lower jawbone – forms temporomandibular joint

External acoustic meatus Mastoid region Squamous region Zygomatic process Mastoid process Mandibular fossa Tympanic region Styloid process Figure 7. 8

Cranium 4. Temporal Bones – • Tympanic region – surrounds external acoustic meatus – external ear canal • Below- needle like styloid process – attachment for tongue and neck muscles

External acoustic meatus Mastoid region Squamous region Zygomatic process Mastoid process Mandibular fossa Tympanic region Styloid process Figure 7. 8

Cranium 4. Temporal Bones – • Mastoid Region – mastoid process – anchoring site for neck muscles • Stylomastoid foramen – allow cranial nerve VII to leave skull • Middle cranial fossa – sphenoid and petrous • Supports temporal bones of brain

Carinum 4. Temporal Bones – • Several foramen - jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, XI • Carotid canal – carotid artery • Foramen lacerum – closed by cartilage in living room • Internal acoustic meatus – cranial nerves VII & VIII

External acoustic meatus Mastoid region Squamous region Zygomatic process Mastoid process Mandibular fossa Tympanic region Styloid process Figure 7. 8

Cranium 5. Sphenoid Bone – bat shaped • Spans width of middle cranial fossa • Central wedge – articulates with all the other cranial bones • Central body and 3 pairs of processes • Greater wings, lesser wings, and pterygoid processes • With in the body – paired sphenoid sinuses

Optic canal Greater wing Hypophyseal fossa of sella turcica Body of sphenoid Lesser wing Superior orbital fissure Foramen rotundum Foramen ovale Foramen spinosum (a) Superior view Figure 7. 9 a

Body of sphenoid Greater wing Lesser wing Superior orbital fissure Pterygoid process (b) Posterior view Figure 7. 9 b

Cranium 6. Ethmoid Bone – complex shape • Lies between sphenoid and nasal bones • Superior surface – cribriform plates • Crista galli – triangular processes • Perpendicular plate – part of nasal septum • Lateral mass – ethmoid sinuses

Olfactory foramina Orbital plate Crista galli Cribriform plate Left lateral mass Ethmoidal air cells Perpendicular plate Middle nasal concha Figure 7. 10

Cranium 7. Sutural Bones – • Thin irregularly shaped bones with in sutures • Vary in numbers • Not in all skulls • Unknown significance

Sutural bone 7. Sutural Bones – • Thin irregularly shaped bones with in sutures • Vary in numbers • Not in all skulls • Unknown significance Figure 7. 4 b

Facial Bones • • 14 bones Only mandible and vomer unpaired Men – more elongated than women Women – rounder and less angular

Facial Bones - Mandible Lower jawbone Longest and strongest Forms chin 2 upright rami – meet body posterior at mandibular angle • Top groove – notch • Body – anchors lower teeth • • – Alveolar margin – contains sockets where teeth are embedded

Temporomandibular joint Mandibular notch Mandibular condyle Mandibular fossa of temporal bone Coronoid process Mandibular foramen Ramus of mandible Alveolar margin Mental foramen Mandibular angle Body of mandible (a) Mandible, right lateral view Figure 7. 11 a

Facial Bones – Maxillary Bones • • Maxillae Fused medially Form upper jaw and central portion of face Upper teeth – alveolar margins

Articulates with frontal bone Frontal process Orbital surface Zygomatic process (cut) Infraorbital foramen Anterior nasal spine Alveolar margin (b) Maxilla, right lateral view Figure 7. 11 b

Zygomatic bone Irregularly shaped Cheek bone and part of inferolateral margins of orbits (a) Anterior view Figure 7. 4 a

Facial Bones – Nasal Bones • Thin, rectangular, bridge of nose • Attach to cartilage of external nose

Facial Bones – Nasal Bones Nasal bone Thin, rectangular, bridge of nose Attach to cartilage of external nose Figure 7. 5 a

Facial Bones – Lacrimal Bones Lacrimal bone Delicate, fingernail shaped Contribute to medial walls of each orbit Deep grove – lacrimal fossa – allows tears to drain (a) Anterior view Figure 7. 4 a

Facial Bones – Palatine Bones • 2 bony plates – horizontal and perpendicular • 3 processes – pyramidal, sphenoidal, and orbital • Horizontal plate – hard palate • Perpendicular – walls of nasal cavity and small part of orbits

Maxilla (palatine process) Hard Palatine bone palate (horizontal plate) Incisive fossa Intermaxillary suture Median palatine suture Infraorbital foramen Maxilla Sphenoid bone (greater wing) (a) Inferior view of the skull (mandible removed) Figure 7. 6 a

Maxilla (palatine process) Hard Palatine bone palate (horizontal plate) Vomer Incisive fossa Intermaxillary suture Median palatine suture Infraorbital foramen Maxilla Sphenoid bone (greater wing) • Slender, plow shaped • In nasal cavity and small part of orbit (a) Inferior view of the skull (mandible removed) Figure 7. 6 a

Inferior Nasal Conchae Inferior nasal concha Nasal bone Thin, curved bones in nasal cavity Wall of nasal cavity Figure 7. 14 a

Hyoid Bone • Not really part of skull • U shaped • Inferior to mandible in anterior neck • Does not articulate directly with any other bone • Horseshoe shaped

The Vertebral Column • Spine or spinal column • 26 irregular bones connected in a flexible curved shape • Skull pelvis • Infant – 33 bones • Adult – 9 fuse 24 bones

C 1 Cervical curvature (concave) 7 vertebrae, C 1–C 7 Spinous process Transverse processes Thoracic curvature (convex) 12 vertebrae, T 1–T 12 Intervertebral discs Intervertebral foramen Lumbar curvature (concave) 5 vertebrae, L 1–L 5 Sacral curvature (convex) 5 fused vertebrae sacrum Anterior view Coccyx 4 fused vertebrae Right lateral view Figure 7. 16

The Vertebral Column • Regions – • ~ 70 cm long (28 inches) • 5 major regions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cervical region (7) Thoracic region (12) Lumbar region (5) Sacrum coccyx

The Vertebral Column • Curvatures • cervical and lumbar curvatures – concave posteriorly • Thoracic and sacral – convex posteriorly

C 1 Cervical curvature (concave) 7 vertebrae, C 1–C 7 Spinous process Transverse processes Thoracic curvature (convex) 12 vertebrae, T 1–T 12 Intervertebral discs Intervertebral foramen Lumbar curvature (concave) 5 vertebrae, L 1–L 5 Sacral curvature (convex) 5 fused vertebrae sacrum Anterior view Coccyx 4 fused vertebrae Right lateral view Figure 7. 16

Abnormal Spinal Curvatures • some present at birth • Others disease, poor posture, unequal muscle pull 1. Scoliosis – “twisted disease” abnormal lateral curvature in the thoracic region – Treated with braces or surgically 2. Kyphosis – hunchback – Dorsally exaggerate thoracic curvature – Common in elderly or from tuberculosis of spine, rickets, or osteomalacia 3. Lordosis – swayback, accentuated lumbar curvature – Spinal tuberculosis or osteomalacia – Common in people with large belles, pregnant women

Ligaments • Elaborate system of cable like supports • Strap like ligaments • Major – anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments • Run down back and front surfaces of vertebrae • Posterior – prevents hyperextension

Intervertebral Discs • Cushion like pad • 2 parts – inner gelatinous nucleus pulposus – rubber ball – gives elasticity and compressibility • Surrounded by – anucleus fibrosus – limits expansion when spine is compressed • Woven strap • Withstands twisting and tension

Vertebral spinous process (posterior aspect of vertebra) Spinal cord Spinal nerve root Transverse process Herniated portion of disc Anulus fibrosus of disc Nucleus pulposus of disc (c) Superior view of a herniated intervertebral disc Figure 7. 17 c

Supraspinous ligament Transverse process Sectioned spinous process Ligamentum flavum Interspinous ligament Intervertebral disc Anterior longitudinal ligament Intervertebral foramen Posterior longitudinal ligament Anulus fibrosus Nucleus pulposus Inferior articular process Sectioned body of vertebra Median section of three vertebrae, illustrating the composition of the discs and the ligaments Figure 7. 17 a

Intervertebral Discs Shock absorbers Allow to spine to bend and flex Thickest in lumbar region 25 % of the height of the column Flatten during day – slightly shorter at night Sudden trauma – herniated disc – rupture of anulus fibrosus and protrusion of nucleus pulposus • Treatment – heat, massage, exercise. • If not must remove protruding disc and fuse vertebrae • • •

Structure of Vertebral Column • Vertebrae – body (centrum) and vertebral arch • Enclose opening – vertebral foramen • Successive vertebrae – vertebral canal = spinal cord • Vertebrae arch – pedicles and laminae • Pedicles – bony pillars on inside of arch • Laminae – flattened plates • Processes from arch – spinous process, transverse process, superior and inferior articular arches

Regional Characteristics • Variation among groups • Allow different functions and movements • General movements – 1. Flexion and extension – straightening of spine 2. Lateral flexion – upper band right or left 3. Rotation – rotation on long axis of spine

Lamina Transverse process Posterior Spinous process Superior articular process and facet Pedicle Anterior Vertebral arch Vertebral foramen Body (centrum) Figure 7. 18

Cervical Vertebrae (7) • C 1 C 7 • Smallest, lightest • Typical – C 3 C 7 1. Body is oval 2. Except C 7 – spinous process is short, projects directly back and bifid – split at top 3. Vertebrae foramens large and generally triangular 4. Transverse process contains transverse foramen

Table 7. 2

Cervical Vertebrae (7) • C 7 – not bifid – Larger than others – Process visible through skin – Landmark for counting vertebrae – vertebra prominens • 1 st two – atlas and axis – More robust – No intervertebral disc – Highly modified

Dens of axis Transverse ligament of atlas C 1 (atlas) C 2 (axis) C 3 Inferior articular process Bifid spinous process Transverse processes C 7 (vertebra prominens) (a) Cervical vertebrae Figure 7. 20 a

Cervical Vertebrae (7) • C 1 – atlas – no body – No spinous processes – Ring of bone – “carries” the skull – Allow to nod yes • C 2 – axis – not as specialized – Dens – “tooth” projecting from body superiorly – Pivot for rotation – Allow head to shake no

C 1 Posterior Lateral masses Posterior tubercle Posterior arch Anterior arch tubercle (a) Superior view of atlas (C 1) Transverse foramen Superior articular facet Posterior arch Transverse process Lateral masses Posterior tubercle Inferior articular facet Transverse Anterior foramen arch Facet for dens Anterior tubercle (b) Inferior view of atlas (C 1) Figure 7. 19 a-b

Posterior C 2 Inferior articular process Spinous process Lamina Pedicle Transverse process Superior articular facet Dens Body (c) Superior view of axis (C 2) Figure 7. 19 c

Thoracic Vertebrae (12) • • T 12 First – like C 7 Last 4 – progression towards lumbar Increase in size

Thoracic Vertebrae (12) • Characteristics – 1. Body – heart shaped -2 small faucets – demi facets – receive heads of ribs 2. Vertebral foramen is circular 3. Spinosous process – long and points downward 4. Except T 11 and T 12 – transverse costal faucets articulate with ribs 5. Faucets in frontal plane – prevent flexion and extension -Allows to rotate – restricted by ribs

Table 7. 2

Transverse process Superior articular process Transverse costal facet (for tubercle of rib) Intervertebral disc Body Spinous process Inferior costal facet (for head of rib) Inferior articular process (b) Thoracic vertebrae Figure 7. 20 b

Lumbar Vertebrae (5) • • • L 1 L 5 Small of back Receives the most stress Sturdier structure Bodies massive and kidney shaped

Lumbar Vertebrae (5) 1. Pedicles and laminae – shorter and thicker 2. Spinous process – short, flat, hatchet shaped – project downward 3. Vertebrae foramen – triangular 4. Orientation of facets differs – modification lock vertebrae together and provide stability – flexion/extension possible

Table 7. 2

Superior articular process Transverse process Spinous process Body Intervertebral disc Inferior articular process (c) Lumbar vertebrae Figure 7. 20 c

Sacrum • • • Triangular shaped Shapes posterior wall of the pelvis S 1 S 5 – five fused vertebrae Auricular surfaces and sarcoiliac joints Sacral promontory – bulges into pelvic cavity 4 ridges – transverse ridges

Sacral promontory Ala Body of first sacral vertebra Transverse ridges (sites of vertebral fusion) Apex Anterior sacral foramina Coccyx (a) Anterior view Figure 7. 21 a

Ala Sacral canal Body Facet of superior articular process Auricular surface Median sacral crest Lateral sacral crest Posterior sacral foramina Coccyx Sacral hiatus (b) Posterior view Figure 7. 21 b

Coccyx • • Tailbone Small triangular bone 4 (sometimes 3) vertebrae fused together Nearly useless bone

Thoracic Cage • Chest and bony underlying • Thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum, and costal cartilages • Protective cage around vital organs (heart, lung, etc. ) • Supports girdles and upper limbs

Jugular notch Clavicular notch Manubrium Sternal angle Body Xiphisternal joint Xiphoid process True ribs (1– 7) False ribs (8– 12) Sternum Intercostal spaces Costal cartilage Costal margin L 1 Vertebra Floating ribs (11, 12) (a) Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view Figure 7. 22 a

Sternum Breast bone Lies in anterior midline Flat, ~15 cm long Fusion of 3 bones – manubrium, body, xiphoid process • 3 anatomical landmarks – jugular notch, sternal angle, xiphisternal joint • •

Jugular notch Clavicular notch Manubrium Sternal angle Body Xiphisternal joint Xiphoid process True ribs (1– 7) False ribs (8– 12) Sternum Intercostal spaces Costal cartilage Costal margin L 1 Vertebra Floating ribs (11, 12) (a) Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view Figure 7. 22 a

Ribs • 12 pairs • Attach posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae and curve internally towards body surface • 7 superior ribs – attach directly to sternum – true or vertebrosternal ribs • 5 remaining – false ribs – attach indirectly or entirely lack sternum attachment • Ribs 8 – 10 – vertebrochondrial ribs • Ribs 11 and 12 – vertebral ribs/floating ribs – no anterior attachment

Transverse costal facet (for tubercle of rib) Angle of rib Superior costal facet (for head of rib) Body of vertebra Head of rib Intervertebral disc Neck of rib Tubercle of rib Shaft Sternum Crosssection of rib Costal groove Costal cartilage (a) Vertebral and sternal articulations of a typical true rib Figure 7. 23 a

Articular facet on tubercle of rib Spinous process Shaft Ligaments Neck of rib Head of rib Transverse costal facet (for tubercle of rib) Body of thoracic vertebra Superior costal facet (for head of rib) (b) Superior view of the articulation between a rib and a thoracic vertebra Figure 7. 23 b

Ribs • • • Increase in length – 1 7 Decrease in length – 8 12 Bowed flat bone Bulk shaft – transverse process of vertebrae Head, neck, and tubercle 1 st pair flattened superiorly horizontal table

Appendicular Skeleton • • • Bones of limbs and their girdles Appended to axial skeleton Pectoral girdles – attach to upper limbs Pelvic girdles – secure lower limbs Limbs – same plane – 3 major segments connected by moveable parts

Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle • Clavicle and scapula • Girdle – usually signifies belt like structure – pectoral does not • Girdles attach to upper limbs to axial skeleton and provide attachment points for muscles • Light and allow motility 1. Only clavicle attaches to axial skeleton – scapula move freely 2. Socket of shoulder – shallow and poorly reinforced, does not restrict movement, good for flexibility, bad for stability

Clavicle - collarbones • • • Slender, doublely curved bones Cone shaped at medial sternal end Flattened on lateral – acromial end Anchor muscles Braces – hold scapula and arms out laterally Not very strong, likely to shatter Fracture outward – protect subclavian artery Sensitive to muscle pull Larger and stronger in those who perform manual labor or athletics

Acromioclavicular joint Clavicle Scapula (a) Articulated pectoral girdle Figure 7. 24 a

Sternal (medial) end Posterior Anterior Acromial (lateral) end (b) Right clavicle, superior view Figure 7. 24 b

Scapulae • • Shoulder blades Thin, triangular flat bones “spade” or “Shovel” 3 borders – superior shortest, sharpest – Medial, Vertebral Border – parallel vertebrae – Lateral or auxiliary, border abuts armpits • • Shallow fossa – glenoid cavity Spine – easily felt through skin Acromion – triangular portion Acromioclavicular joint – coracoid process – anchors biceps muscle

Acromion Suprascapular notch Superior border Coracoid process Glenoid cavity Lateral border Superior angle Subscapular fossa Medial border (a) Right scapula, anterior aspect Inferior angle Figure 7. 25 a

Suprascapular notch Coracoid process Superior angle Supraspinous fossa Spine Infraspinous fossa Acromion Glenoid cavity at lateral angle Medial border Lateral border (b) Right scapula, posterior aspect Figure 7. 25 b

Upper Limb – 30 bones Arm – upper limb – shoulder elbow Humerous - longest, largest bone of upper limb Articulates – scapula and radius/ulna Head fits into glenoid cavity of scapula Coronoid fossa & olecranon fossa – allow ulna to move freely • Radial fossa – head of radius • • •

Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle Intertubercular sulcus Head of humerus Anatomical neck Deltoid tuberosity Lateral supracondylar ridge Radial fossa Capitulum (a) Anterior view Coronoid fossa Medial epicondyle Trochlea Figure 7. 26 a

Forearm • • 2 parallel long bones Radius and ulna Articulate with each other Radioulnar joint – connected by interosseous membrane

Radial notch of the ulna Head Neck Radial tuberosity Olecranon process Trochlear notch Coronoid process Proximal radioulnar joint Interosseous membrane Ulna Head of radius Neck of radius Radius Ulnar notch Radius of the radius Head of ulna Styloid process of ulna process Distal radioulnar Styloid process of radius joint of radius (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view Figure 7. 27 a-b

Ulna • Slightly longer than radius forming elbow joint • 2 processes – olecranon and coronoid separated by notch

Olecranon process Trochlear notch View Coronoid process Radial notch (c) Proximal portion of ulna, lateral view Ulnar notch of radius Articulation for lunate Articulation for scaphoid Styloid process View Styloid Head of ulna process (d) Distal ends of the radius and ulna at the wrist Figure 7. 27 c-d

Humerus Capitulum Coronoid fossa Medial epicondyle Trochlea Coronoid process of ulna Radial notch Ulna (c) Anterior view at the elbow region Head of radius Radial tuberosity Radius Humerus Olecranon process Olecranon fossa Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle Head Ulna Neck Radius (d) Posterior view of extended elbow Figure 7. 26 c-d

Radius • • Thin at proximal end – wide distally Head – shaped like head of nail Radial tuberosity – anchors biceps molecule Contributes with wrist joint - Colle’s Fracture – break in distal end of radius - Falling person – break their fall

Radial notch of the ulna Head Neck Radial tuberosity Olecranon process Trochlear notch Coronoid process Proximal radioulnar joint Interosseous membrane Ulna Head of radius Neck of radius Radius Ulnar notch Radius of the radius Head of ulna Styloid process of ulna process Distal radioulnar Styloid process of radius joint of radius (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view Figure 7. 27 a-b

Hand • Wrist – carpus • Palm – metacarpals • Phalanges - fingers

Phalanges • Distal • Middle • Proximal Sesamoid bones Carpals • Trapezium • Trapezoid • Scaphoid Radius (a) Anterior view of left hand Metacarpals • Head • Shaft • Base Carpals • Hamate • Capitate • Pisiform • Triquetrum • Lunate Ulna Carpals • Trapezium • Trapezoid • Scaphoid Radius (b) Posterior view of left hand Figure 7. 28 a-b

Carpus (wrist) • Carpals – 8 marble sized bones • 2 irregular rows of 4 bones 1. Proximal row – (lateral medial) - Scaphoid “boat shaped” lunate ‘moonshaped” triguetrum “triangle” pisciform “pea-shaped” 2. Carpals – distal row - Trapezium “little table” trapezoid “ 4 sided” capitate “head-shaped” hamate “hooked”

Phalanges • Distal • Middle • Proximal Sesamoid bones Carpals • Trapezium • Trapezoid • Scaphoid Radius (a) Anterior view of left hand Metacarpals • Head • Shaft • Base Carpals • Hamate • Capitate • Pisiform • Triquetrum • Lunate Ulna Carpals • Trapezium • Trapezoid • Scaphoid Radius (b) Posterior view of left hand Figure 7. 28 a-b

Carpus (wrist) • Carpal tunnel – overuse and inflammation of tendons – swell and compress nerves in the wrist • Pain is greatest at night • Carpal tunnel syndrome

Metacarpals (palm) • • • 5 radiate from wrist Form palm of hand Not named – numbered 1 -5 Bases – articulate with carpals Heads – articulate with phalanges Thumb (1) – more anterior position

Phalanges • Distal • Middle • Proximal Sesamoid bones Carpals • Trapezium • Trapezoid • Scaphoid Radius (a) Anterior view of left hand Metacarpals • Head • Shaft • Base Carpals • Hamate • Capitate • Pisiform • Triquetrum • Lunate Ulna Carpals • Trapezium • Trapezoid • Scaphoid Radius (b) Posterior view of left hand Figure 7. 28 a-b

Phalanges (fingers) • • • Digits, fingers 1 – 5 – thumb number 1 3 rd fingers usually longest 14 miniature bones Distal, middle, and proximal Thumb – no middle bone

Phalanges • Distal • Middle • Proximal Sesamoid bones Carpals • Trapezium • Trapezoid • Scaphoid Radius (a) Anterior view of left hand Metacarpals • Head • Shaft • Base Carpals • Hamate • Capitate • Pisiform • Triquetrum • Lunate Ulna Carpals • Trapezium • Trapezoid • Scaphoid Radius (b) Posterior view of left hand Figure 7. 28 a-b

Pelvic (Hip) Girdle Attaches lower limbs Transmits full weight of upper body Supports visceral organs Sparingly attached to thoracic cage Secured to axial skeleton by ligaments Sockets – deep, cuplike Lacks motility of pectoral girdle Formed by pair of hip bones – os coxae or coxal bone 3 regions – ilium, ischium, and pubis (adults – bones fused) • Point of fusion - anetabulum • • •

Base of sacrum Iliac fossa Coxal bone llium (os coxae or hip Pubic bone) bone Iliac crest Sacroiliac joint Anterior superior iliac spine Sacral promontory Sacrum Coccyx Anterior inferior iliac spine Pelvic brim Acetabulum Pubic tubercle Pubic crest Pubic symphysis Ischium Pubic arch PLAY Animation: Rotatable pelvis Figure 7. 29

Ilium • • Large, flaring bones Superior region of coxal bone Body with wing like portion – ala Iliac crests – hands on hips

Anterior gluteal Ilium line Ala Posterior Iliac crest gluteal line Posterior Anterior superior i. Iiac spine iliac spine Posterior inferior Inferior iliac spine gluteal line Greater sciatic Anterior inferior notch iliac spine Ischial body Acetabulum Ischial spine Pubic body Lesser sciatic notch Pubis Ischium Inferior ramus Ischial of pubis tuberosity Obturator foramen Ischial ramus (a) Lateral view, right hip bone Figure 7. 30 a

Ilium Iliac crest Iliac fossa Posterior superior iliac spine Posterior inferior iliac spine Auricular surface Greater sciatic notch Ischial spine Lesser sciatic notch Obturator foramen Ischium Anterior superior iliac spine Anterior inferior Body of iliac spine the ilium Arcuate line Superior ramus of pubis Pubic tubercle Articular surface of pubis (at pubic symphysis) Ischial ramus Inferior ramus of pubis (b) Medial view, right hip bone Figure 7. 30 b

Ischium • • • Posteroinferior part of hip bone Roughly L-shaped or arc shaped Thicker superior body Thinner inferior ramus 3 markings 1. Ischial spine – attachment of ligament – sacrospinous ligament 2. Lesser sciatic notch 3. Ischial tuberosity

Anterior gluteal Ilium line Ala Posterior Iliac crest gluteal line Posterior Anterior superior i. Iiac spine iliac spine Posterior inferior Inferior iliac spine gluteal line Greater sciatic Anterior inferior notch iliac spine Ischial body Acetabulum Ischial spine Pubic body Lesser sciatic notch Pubis Ischium Inferior ramus Ischial of pubis tuberosity Obturator foramen Ischial ramus (a) Lateral view, right hip bone Figure 7. 30 a

Pubis • Pubic bone • Anterior portion of hipbone • Lies nearly horizontally – urinary bladder lies on it • Anterior portion – thickened – pubic crest • Joined by fibrocartilage – pubis symphsis – forms pubic arch or subpubic angle

Anterior gluteal Ilium line Ala Posterior Iliac crest gluteal line Posterior Anterior superior i. Iiac spine iliac spine Posterior inferior Inferior iliac spine gluteal line Greater sciatic Anterior inferior notch iliac spine Ischial body Acetabulum Ischial spine Pubic body Lesser sciatic notch Pubis Ischium Inferior ramus Ischial of pubis tuberosity Obturator foramen Ischial ramus (a) Lateral view, right hip bone Figure 7. 30 a

Male vs. Female • Female – modified for childbearing – wider, shallow, lighter, and rounder • Must be large enough to allow infants head to pass • False (greater) pelvis and true (lesser) pelvis 1. False bound by alea of ilia – really part of abdomen – helps support viscera 2. True pelvis – region inferior to brim that is surrounded by bone – deep bowl containing pelvic organs - Pelvic inlet – pelvic brim – labor – head enter inlet first - Then pelvic outlet

Comparison of Male and Female Pelves Characteristic Female Male Bone thickness Lighter, thinner, and smoother Heavier, thicker, and more prominent markings Pubic arch/angle 80˚– 90˚ 50˚– 60˚ Acetabula Small; farther apart Large; closer together Sacrum Wider, shorter; sacral curvature is accentuated Narrow, longer; sacral promontory more ventral Coccyx More movable; straighter Less movable; curves ventrally

Lower Limb • Carry entire weight of body • Subjected to exceptional force • Thicker and stronger than upper limbs

Thigh - Femur Single bone of thigh Largest, longest, strongest bone in body Clothed in bulky muscles Articulates with hip bone and knee Ball like head, neck, and shaft Ends in wheel like lateral and medial condyles – articulate with tibia • Patella – triangular seasmoid bone – enclosed in quadriceps – tendon secures thigh muscles to tibia • • •

Neck Fovea capitis Greater trochanter Head Intertrochanteric crest Lesser trochanter Intertrochanteric line Gluteal tuberosity Linea aspera Apex Anterior Facet for medial condyle of femur Facet for lateral condyle of femur Lateral condyle Medial and lateral supracondylar lines Surface for patellar Posterior ligament (a) Patella (kneecap) Intercondylar fossa Lateral epicondyle Medial condyle Adductor tubercle Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Patellar surface Anterior view Posterior view (b) Femur (thigh bone) Figure 7. 31

Leg • 2 parallel bones – tibia and fibia • Connected by interosseous membrane

Lateral condyle Intercondylar eminence Head Proximal tibiofibular joint Medial condyle Tibial tuberosity Interosseous membrane Anterior border Fibula Tibia Distal tibiofibular joint Articular surface Lateral malleolus Medial malleolus (a) Anterior view Figure 7. 32 a

Tibia • Receives weight of body from femur • 2 nd only to femur in size and strength

Lateral condyle Intercondylar eminence Head Proximal tibiofibular joint Medial condyle Tibial tuberosity Interosseous membrane Anterior border Fibula Tibia Distal tibiofibular joint Articular surface Lateral malleolus Medial malleolus (a) Anterior view Figure 7. 32 a

Fibula • Stick like bone with slightly expanded ends

Lateral condyle Intercondylar eminence Head Proximal tibiofibular joint Medial condyle Tibial tuberosity Interosseous membrane Anterior border Fibula Tibia Distal tibiofibular joint Articular surface Lateral malleolus Medial malleolus (a) Anterior view Figure 7. 32 a

Foot • Tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges • 2 functions – supports body weight and acts a lever to propel body forward

Distal Middle Proximal 1 Medial cuneiform Intermediate cuneiform Navicular Talus Trochlea of talus (a) Superior view 2 3 4 5 Phalanges Metatarsals Lateral cuneiform Cuboid Tarsals Calcaneus Figure 7. 33 a

Intermediate cuneiform First metatarsal Talus Facet for medial Navicular malleolus Sustentaculum tali (talar shelf) Calcaneus Medial cuneiform (b) Medial view PLAY Calcaneal tuberosity Animation: Rotatable bones of the foot Figure 7. 33 b

7 bones – tarsals 2 largest – talus and calcaneous 1 Medial cuneiform Intermediate cuneiform Navicular Talus Trochlea of talus (a) Superior view 2 3 4 5 Lateral cuneiform Cuboid Tarsals Calcaneus Figure 7. 33 a

1 2 3 4 5 Metatarsals 5 small bones 1 -5, big toe #1 Figure 7. 33 a

Distal Middle Proximal 1 2 3 4 Phalanges 5 14 bones – smaller than hands 3 on each digit except great toe (hallux) Only 2 – proximal and distal Figure 7. 33 a

Arch • 3 arches – 2 longitudinal – medial and lateral and 1 transverse • Maintained by bones, ligament, and pull of tendons • Provide springiness • Makes running and walking more economical in terms of energy use • Medial – well above ground • Lateral – very low • Transverse – other way • Standing immobile – long periods – strain on tendons and ligaments – flat feet

Medial longitudinal arch Transverse arch Lateral longitudinal arch (a) Lateral aspect of right foot Figure 7. 34 a