Situational metonymies Gnter Radden Hamburg University raddengyahoo com

Situational metonymies Günter Radden Hamburg University raddeng@yahoo. com 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 1

Structure 1. 2. 3. 23. 11. 2020 What is metonymy? Cognitive steps in communicating a (metonymic) situation Examples of situational metonymies Situation metonymies 2

1. What is metonymy? – my view Is metonymy (i) a matter of contiguity? – No. (ii) a matter of substitution? – No. (iii) a reference-point phenomenon? – Yes, and… (iv) an inferential process? – Yes, and… 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 3

(i ) Metonymy is not a matter of contiguity but a matter of association “Metonymies may be called natural inference schemas, i. e. easily activatable associations among concepts that can be used for inferential purposes. (Panther & Thornburg 2004) “[…] metonymy is a process of co-activation of strongly associated concepts within single integrated conceptualisations […] metonymy is an ‛embodied’ mental process occurring naturally and unconsciously as a result of synaptic links in the parts of the brain supporting mental and linguistic activities. ” (Bierwiaczonek 2013: 37 and 256) 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 4

Bidirectionality of metonymic relations CONTAINER FOR CONTENT: This bottle is sour. CONTENT FOR CONTAINER: You did it, mate, says Morgan, clinking beers with Wallace. POSSESSOR FOR POSSESSION: My wife was towed away. POSSESSION FOR POSSESSOR: Arthur married money. REPRESENTATION FOR OBJECT: It’s not raining on this map. OBJECT FOR REPRESENTATION: I like Monet’s water lilies. (‘I like the paintings of water lilies by Monet’) 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 5

Is there a limit to metonymic associations? How can these metonymies be described? - Flight agent asking passenger: “Do you want window or aisle? ” ‛object for space near space for object’ = Proximity ICM? - Passenger at railroad station asking where the ticket office is: “Where can I get train tickets? ” “Trains are over there. ” ‛vehicle for permit for agent for place’ = ? - Wife to husband: “Can you set the table, dear? ” ‛object for part of the object (table top) for objects supported by object (on) for action involving objects’ = ? 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 6

(ii) Metonymy is not a matter of substitution but evokes both source and target There a lot of good heads in the university. (= not just ‛people’, but ‛intelligent people’) He’s got a Picasso in his den. (= not just a ‛painting’, but ‛Picasso’s work in relation to the artist’) “Metonymic concepts allow us to conceptualize one thing by means of its relations to something else. ” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980) “An idea that has been activated does not merely evoke one other idea. It activates many ideas, which in turn activate others. ” (D. Kahneman 2011: 52) 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 7

Interaction view of metaphor (I. A. Richards 1936, Max Black 1955) “When we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction. The reader is forced to connect the two ideas. ” (I. A. Richards, Max Black) “Metaphor is a special case of blending, where elements of two input spaces are projected to form a third space, the blend, with its own distinct properties. ” (Langacker 2009: 342) 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 8

Metonymy as conceptual blending Conceptual integration – also known as “blending” or “mental binding” – is a mental operation whose uniform structural and dynamic properties apply over many areas of thought and action, including metaphor and metonymy. (Turner & Fauconnier 2003) Metonymy involves the conceptual blending of the concept evoked by the source term and the concept evoked by the intended target. Blending is an online real-time process that creates new meaning through the juxtaposition of familiar material. (Alac & Coulson 2004) 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 9

Metonymy as conceptual blending Integration of Part-Whole Vital Relations We point to a picture of a face and say “That’s Jane Doe, ” not “That’s the face of Jane Doe. ” We have constructed a network mapping the individual to the picture of what seems to us her most salient part, her face. In the blend, the face is projected from one input and the whole person from the other. In the blend, face and person are fused: The face is the personal identity. (Fauconnier &Turner 2002: 97) person face person with her personal identity 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 10

Metonymy as conceptual blending The conceptual blending approach accounts for the fact that the metonymic source concept is not simply erased but is fused with the metonymic target concept, giving rise to emergent meaning in the metonymic blend. The shoes were neatly tied. WHOLE FOR PART the shoes the laces were neatly tied the shoes as a whole were neat 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 11

(iii) Metonymy is a reference-point phenomenon - and there is more to it. target Domin ion Ref. Pt. target my y n o met target Conceptualizer 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 12

Last year, Greece was rescued with a package worth € 110 billion Potential metonymic targets: the people, the banks, the state, the budget, the economy, etc. state domin io budget PL A CE F O R ? PLACE people PL IN AC ST E IT FO UI R TI PLAC ON E FOR INHA BITA NTS FOR STATE banks FOR ? PLACE economy Greece n Conceptualizer 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 13

(iv) Metonymy is an inferential process “Metonymies may be called natural inference schemas, i. e. easily activatable associations among concepts that can be used for inferential purposes. ” (Panther & Thornburg 2004) 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 14

2. 23. 11. 2020 Cognitive steps in communicating a (metonymic) situation Situation metonymies 15

“Please turn on your phone after the performance. ” audience: metonymic inferences verbalized FINAL SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT FOR INITIAL SUBEVENT ‛turn phone on’ ‛public disturbance’ ‛turn phone off’ announcer: metonymic reasoning - conceptualization: WHOLE EVENT FOR POTENTIAL SUBEVENTS - frame: theater performance - virtual inference: FINAL SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT FOR INITIAL SUBEVENT - verbalization: “Please turn on your phone after the performance. ” 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 16

Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation (i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 17

Journalese Der Opel hatte nicht auf Rot geachtet – er war auch nicht nüchtern. ‘The Opel hadn’t paid attention to the red light – it wasn’t sober either’ (Westdeutsche Zeitung) Auto flüchtet auf drei Rädern. ‘Car escaped on three wheels’ (Rhein-Zeitung) Nach dem Unfall sei der etwa 30 bis 40 Jahre alte Volvofahrer ausgestiegen und habe kurz mit dem Notarztwagen gesprochen. ‘After the accident the 30 to 40 -year-old Volvo driver was reported to have gotten out of his car and having had a word with the emergency ambulance’ (Nordwest-Zeitung) 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 18

Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation (i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt. (ii) Any situation evokes a complex network of associated concepts. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 19

Network of associated concepts of a situation and situational metonymies situation-internal manner ICM means property cause situational core situation thing relation subevent thing situationexternal situation type place time 23. 11. 2020 reality - potentiality Situation metonymies 20

THING-EVENT metonymies THING FOR PROPERTY: I am just a student THING FOR EVENT: We’ve always had a nose for the very best. OBJECT FOR EVENT INVOLVING THE OBJECT: Mary began the book. THING FOR THE USE OF THE THING: The treadmill burns 200 calories an hour. OBJECT INVOLVED IN ACTION FOR AGENT: couch potato 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 21

PROPERTY metonymies PROPERTY FOR A THING: You’re insulting my intelligence. EVENT FOR PROPERTY OF A THING FOR THE THING: pick-up truck 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 22

MEANS and MANNER metonymies MEANS FOR ACTION: He sneezed the napkin off the table. MANNER OF PERFORMING AN ACTION FOR THE ACTION: I’ll be brief. MANNER OF PERFORMING AN ACTION WITH A THING FOR A PROPERTY OF THE THING: Our investors are more interested in long-term, stable, reliable returns than in the fast buck. / fast car TIME FOR MANNER: permanent talk 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 23

CAUSAL metonymies CAUSE FOR EFFECT: CAUSE FOR PURPOSE: EFFECT FOR CAUSE: beautify the garden. donate money for a good cause happy hour ‘times when restaurants reduce their prices on alcoholic beverages’ PRECEDENCE FOR CAUSE: Who started the fight? 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 24

SITUATION-TYPE metonymies STATE FOR EVENT: Paolo Soleri is dead at 83. SEEING FOR MAKING SURE: Can you see to it. HABIT FOR SPECIFIC EVENT: Would you care for something to drink? – I never drink. EVENT FOR STATE: Please fasten seatbelt while seated. MOTION FOR STATE: The poplar is after the oak. PROCESS FOR ACTION: The door opened ‘someone opened the door’ RESULT FOR ACTION: Have another cookie. ACTION FOR RESULT: He is catching a bird. / dermatologically tested (It doesn't say who or what skin it was tested on. And it doesn't even mean that They PASSED the test. ) 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 25

POTENTIALITY, ACTUALIT, REALITY metonymies POTENTIAL FOR ACTUAL: I can see your point. / I must admit you are right. ACTUAL FOR POTENTIAL: Do you play the piano? / He is an angry person. ACTUAL FOR ASSIGNED: Is someone sitting here? – No, the seat is empty. SUBJECTIVITY FOR REALITY: That was a penalty. APPEARANCE FOR REALITY: He looked puzzled. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 26

TIME metonymies Time-internal: PAST FOR PRESENT: What was your name? / This was the supermarket. POINT IN TIME FOR PERIOD: At the moment there is no news available. PASSING TIME FOR PRESENT: currently ‘presently’ PROXIMATE TIME FOR DISTANT TIME: Today's syntax is tomorrow's morphology. Time-external: EVENT FOR TIME: Christmas; Tok Pisin: yu gat hamas krismas? THING FOR EVENT FOR TIME: I explained a few classes ago. THING FOR ACTIVITY FOR TIME TO DO THAT ACTIVITY: She left about two beers ago. TIME FOR EVENT: 9/11 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 27

PLACE metonymies PLACE FOR EVENT: Greece was not supposed to happen. / Not longer after, Hutton was on the plane. / Jack is on the phone. EVENT FOR PLACE: He drove through a red light. / bus stop TIME FOR DISTANCE: From Cologne to Vienna it is ten hours by train. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 28

Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation (i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt. (ii) Any situation comprises a complex network of associated concepts. (iii) In “thinking for speaking”, the speaker decides on how to code the situation she wants to communicate in a given language in accordance with principles of cooperation. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 29

Thinking for speaking - a specialized form of thought that is mobilized for communication (Slobin 1996) English: assert trajectory, imply end-state The boy climbed the tree. Spanish: assert end-state, imply trajectory El niño está subido en el árbol. ‛the boy is climb-PART en [= in/on] the tree’ [= the boy is in a state of having climbed the tree] 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 30

Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation (i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt. (ii) Any situation comprises a complex network of associated concepts. (iii) In “thinking for speaking”, the speaker decides on how to code the situation she wants to communicate in a given language in accordance with principles of cooperation. (iv) A communicative act is (of necessity) metonymic and hence requires the speaker to gauge its adequacy by anticipating the hearer’s inferential task. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 31

Iconicity in syntax (Posner 1986) (a) Mr. Smith stopped in front of his house. He waved to a passing neighbor and got out of his car. (b) Mr. Smith stopped in front of his house. He raised his arm and smiled to a passing neighbor. He pulled the handle of the door of his car, pushed the door open, swung his legs out, heaved his body out, and shut the door. Inference: The degree of painstakingness in the presentation of actions conveys the degree of painstakingness of the actions presented. DETAIL IN FORM FOR DETAIL IN MEANING 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 32

Cognitive steps in communicating a conceptual situation (i) People typically conceive of a situation as a whole gestalt. (ii) Any situation comprises a complex network of associated concepts. (iii) In “thinking for speaking”, the speaker decides on how to code the situation she wants to communicate in a given language in accordance with principles of cooperation. (iv) The communicative act is (of necessity) metonymic and hence requires the speaker to gauge its adequacy by anticipating the hearer’s inferential task. (v) The hearer constructs the speaker’s intended meaning via metonymic inferences. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 33

3. Examples of situational metonymies (i) (iii) 23. 11. 2020 POTENTIAL FOR ACTUAL PAST FOR PRESENT SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT Situation metonymies 34

(i) POTENTIAL FOR ACTUAL: Inert perception We can see the moon. Input 1 ABILITY: state with potential actualization able to see Input 2 Blend actualized STATE OF PERCEPTION can see ABILITY We are able to see the moon (because it reflects light from the sun). 23. 11. 2020 STATE OF PERCEPTION INSTANTANEOUS PERCEPTION see ecological motivation STATE OF PERCEPTION INSTANTANEOUS PERCEPTION We can see the moon. We see the moon. Situation metonymies 35

Verbs of perception and cognition Google search “I see the moon” “I can see the moon” “I see a mouse” “I can see a mouse” 246, 000 17 “I hear a mouse” “I can hear a mouse” 27, 700 174, 000 “I heard the slam” “I could hear the slam” 308, 000 22 “I understand the problem” “I can understand the problem” “I now understand the problem” “I can now understand the problem” 23. 11. 2020 3, 920, 000 1, 280, 000 Situation metonymies 2, 750, 000 7, 020, 000 226, 000 15 36

(ii) PRESENT FOR PAST: Compression of time Wer bekam die Gulaschsuppe? ‘Who received the goulash soup’ (Comrie 1985: 20) restaurant script present being served past ordering blend past ordering being served Compression of times of preceding and present events in the past 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 37

IMMEDIACY FOR DISTANCE (VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR PAST: narrative present, historical present, scientific present, headlines, etc. emergent meanings: immediacy, liveliness 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 38

IMMEDIACY FOR DISTANCE: (VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR PAST/FUTURE Narrative present A wife asks her husband, “Could you please go shopping for me and buy one carton of milk and if they have avocados, get 6. ” A short time later the husband comes back with 6 cartons of milk. The wife asks him, “Why did you buy 6 cartons of milk? ” He replied, “They had avocados. ” Headline David Beckham retires England’s most capped player and arguably the most famous player on the planet, David Beckham, announced his retirement on 16 May, 2013. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 39

IMMEDIACY FOR DISTANCE (VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR PAST: narrative present, historical present, scientific present, headlines, etc. emergent meanings: immediacy, liveliness (VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR FUTURE and HYPOTHETICALITY scheduled future: emergent meaning: present availability conditional clause: If it rains tomorrow, we will stay in the house. The protasis is construed as factual relative to a hypothetical future configuration. (Fauconnier 1997) emergent meaning: present reasoning (? ): (VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR RECURRENCE recurrent (habitual) events fused into one event emergent meaning: characteristic property: John smokes. (VIRTUAL) PRESENT FOR TIMELESSNESS generalizations, general truths, minutes, captions, stage directions, etc. emergent meaning: present validity 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 40

(iii) WHOLE SITUATION – SUBEVENTS whole situation co-present subevent successive subevents salient concomitant peripheral 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 41

CO-PRESENT SUBEVENTS: SALIENT and CONCOMITANT SUBEVENTS Situational ICM comprising two co-present blended subevents salient subevent concomitant subevent metonymic highlighting of concomitant subevent and emergent´meaning ACTIO N SOUND FOR SLOW AND TRADITIONAL The shop assistant rang up the purchase on ACTION MOTI ON VERB AL SOUND 23. 11. 2020 the cash register. MANNE R NONVERBAL SOUND FOR NOISY AND FAST The train roared over the mountain tracks. MOTION MANNER FOR ROUGH The airplane bounced its way to a halt. MOTION NON-VERBAL FOR VERBAL The queen raised an eyebrow yesterday COMMUNICATION when she was told of a play about a man who has a passionate affair with his pet goat. Situation metonymies 42

CO-PRESENT SUBEVENTS: SALIENT and PERIHERAL SUBEVENTS Situtional ICM comprising several co-present subevents metonymic highlighting of a salient subevent LINGUISTIC speaking, understanding, COMPETENCE: SALIENT SUBEVENT FOR SET OF My wife speaks Finnish = ‘she speaks, SUBEVENTS IN FALL 1989: SALIENT SUBEVENT FOR COMPLEX When the wall came down = ‘unspecific sum of SUBEVENTS writing, reading fall of the Berlin Wall, opening of the borders, visa-free travel, freedom of speech, free elections, etc. 23. 11. 2020 understands, writes and reads Finnish’ but: I don’t read Hebrew. co-present subevents’ Situation metonymies 43

CO-PRESENT SUBEVENT I have been sitting behind the wheel all day. The interpretation of this sentence involves: a) PERIPHERAL SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE SITUATION: sitting behind the wheel = ‘driving’, in particular steering b) blending of the peripheral (passive) event of sitting behind the steering wheel and the central (active) event of driving c) emergent meaning derived from sitting: the journey was long, tiring, tedious, boring, etc. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 44

sitting behind the wheel (Google) n Have been sitting behind the steering-wheel for more than six hours today. Driving, driving. It seems that there is nothing more natural than driving. Streets, boulevards, avenues, highways, freeways, backside alleys. Six hours driving without changing places. (= endless and tiring activity of driving) n From the very first time you sit behind the wheel, your car becomes an important part of your life. (= first experience of driving) n 25% of Britons would sit behind the wheel after drinking alcohol, according to the poll. (= drinking and driving) 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 45

CO-REPRESENT SUBEVENTS: Playing a musical instrument The ICM of ‘playing a musical instrument’ comprises the following aspects: 1. a musical instrument four types of instrument according to the means of sound production: brass, woodwind, percussion, and string instruments 2. the production of sound 3. the production of music by a musician playing a tune on a musical instrument 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 46

Playing a musical instrument in different languages English: production of music: you play an instrument Finnish: production of sound: you sound an instrument Japanese: different means of sound production: you pluck, blow, beat, or sound an instrument Hausa: 23. 11. 2020 one means of sound production: you hit an instrument Situation metonymies 47

Playing a musical instrument in Japanese String instruments (guitar, violin, viola, harpsichord, piano, organ, accordion, etc. ) are ‘plucked’ (hiku). Brass and woodwind instruments (trumpet, trombone, flute, oboe, recorder, harmonica, etc. ) are ‘blown’ (fuku). Percussion instruments (drum, castanets, tambourine, xylophone, etc. ) are ‘beaten’ (tataku). Percussion instruments that are shaken (maracas, handbell, etc. ) are ‘sounded’ (narasu). Playing any musical instrument in a performance is expressed as ‘musical. performance-do’ (ensoo-suru). Situation metonymies 23. 11. 2020 48

Whole situation– subevents whole situation co-present subevent successive subevents salient concomitant precondition initial central final end peripheral 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 49

SUCCESSIVE SUBEVENTS FOR WHOLE EVENT “travel” ICM (Lakoff) “How did you get to the party? ” Precondition: Embarkation: Center: Finish: End point: 23. 11. 2020 “I have a car. ” “I hopped on a bus. ” “I drove. ” You park and get out. You are at your destination Situation metonymies 50

Means of getting to a place Establishing Precondition Embarkation Center Final by bus They opened a new bus line. There is a bus stop close by. I hopped on the bus. I took the bus. I came by bus. walking I love walking. This is within walking distance. I put on my walking shoes. I walked over. I came on foot. by car I just bought a new car. I borrowed Dad's car. I passed the driver's test. They have built a new road. I have a car. Friends always lend me their cars. I now have a driver's license. You can get here in no time. I drove. I came by car Means 23. 11. 2020 I jumped into the car. I got behind the steering wheel. Situation metonymies 51

SUCCESSIVE SUBEVENTS FOR WHOLE SITUATION: focus on different subevents whole event precondition initial central finish end I slammed down the phone. We are cut off. The doctor examined her. The doctor prescribed green pills. She is feeling better now. I marked all the mistakes. I graded the papers. I returned the papers. Phoning ICM: There is Just pick up I made a phone call. the phone. Doctor's visit ICM: She went to see the doctor. the phone. My wife was sick. Paper-grading There was a I read the pile of papers. ICM: waiting to be graded. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 52

Booking ICM (in soccer games): Caution and removal from the game Yellow card: A playing card-sized card that a referee holds up to warn a player for dangerous or unsportsmanlike behavior; also called a caution. Red card: A playing card-sized card that a referee holds up to signal a player's removal from the game, presented for violent behavior or multiple law infractions. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 53

The referee gives a card to a player Referee Peter Frojdfeldt, right, from Sweden, gives a yellow card to Italy's Luca Toni, second left, during the group C match between the Netherlands and Italy in Bern, Switzerland, Monday, June 9, 2008, at the Euro 2008 European Soccer Championships in Austria and Switzerland. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 54

SUCCESSIVE AND CO-PRESENT SUBEVENTS in the booking ICM Precondition: A player displays dangerous or violent behavior. Initial, preparatory subevents: a) The referee walks over to the player. b) The referee dips/ reached into his pocket/ fumbles in his pocket. c) The referee pulls out a red card/ fishes a red card out of his pocket. Central subevents: performative booking act: a) The referee holds up/ brandishes/ waves the red card. b) The referee shows/ gives/ wields/ issues the player the red card. c) The player is shown/ sees/ receives/ gets the red card. d) The player picks up/ earns/ draws a red card. Final, ensuing subevents: the player is booked: The player is sent off/ banished from the field/ removed from the game. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 55

Some unresolved, thorny problems 1. What is the target of situational metonymies? If the metonymic target is taken to be the central subevent, e. g. I drove in the ‘getting to a place’ ICM, then I hopped on the bus would be metonymic, but I drove would not. If the metonymic target is taken to be the ICM, then all subevents including the central one (I drove) would metonymically stand for the ‘getting to a place’ ICM. 2. If the central subevent is taken to be the metonymic target, what counts as a central event? (e. g. holding up a card/ showing a card/ giving a card? ) 3. Are metonymies language specific or conceptual, or both? For example, is the English expression play an instrument metonymic even when there are no alternative expressions available in English? 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 56

Summarizing conclusions: Four suggestions for future research on metonymy - The important notion of association in metonymy needs to be supplemented and substantiated by psychological and neurological research. - The metonymic vehicle deserves more attention, especially in its interaction with the metonymic target and its contribution to emergent meaning. - The motivation of a given metonymy and constraints on metonymic processes are central issues in a cognitive approch to metonymy. - The speaker’s stance in conceptualizing and producing metonymies deserves as much attention as the hearer’s stance in inferring their meaning. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 57

References Bierwiaczonek, B. 2013. Metonymy in Language, Thought and Brain. Sheffield: Equinox. Comrie, B. 1985: Tense. Cambridge: C. U. P. Fauconnier, G. and M. Turner. 2002. The Way We Think. New York: Basic Books. Herrero Ruiz, Javier. 2011. The role of metonymy in complex tropes: Cognitive operations and pragmatic implications. In R. Benczes, A Barcelona, and F. José Ruiz de Mendoza, eds. , Defining Metonymy in Cognitive Linguistics: Towards a consensus view, 167 -93. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Kahnemann, D. 2011. Thinking Fast and Slow. London: Penguin. Lakoff, G. and M. Johnson. 1980. Metaphors We Live by. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Panther, K. -U. and L Thornburg. 1999. The potentiality for actuality metonymy in English and Hungarian. In K. -U. Panther and G. Radden, eds. , Metonymy in Language and Thought, 332 -57. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Posner, Roland. 1986. Iconicity in syntax: The natural order of attributes. In P. Bouissac, M. Herzfeld, and R. Posner, eds. , Iconicity: Festschrift for Thomas A. Sebeok, 305337. Tübingen: Stauffenburg. Slobin, D. 1996. From “thought and language” to “thinking for speaking”. In Gumperz and Levinson, eds. , Rethinking Linguistic Relativity, 70 -96. Cambridge: C. U. P. 23. 11. 2020 Situation metonymies 58