Sentence Structure Grammar and Mechanics Lawrence Cleary Codirector

Sentence Structure, Grammar and Mechanics Lawrence Cleary, Co-director Regional Writing Centre, UL www. ul. ie/rwc

Clauses �A clause, at minimum, has a subject, a tensed verb and makes sense: ◦ ‘Jesus wept. ’ (S+Vi) ◦ ‘The sky is blue. ’ (S+Vl+C) ◦ ‘I fixed my bike. ’ (S + Vt + Od) ◦ ‘I gave Mary the keys. ’ (S +Vt + Oi + Od) � There are two kinds of clauses: ◦ Clauses that have a subject and a verb and make sense are independent clauses. They don’t need additional information in order to make sense. ◦ Dependent clauses cannot stand alone: ‘ �‘After I get the tickets. ’ (S+Vt + Od, but needs an independent clause to help it make sense): �‘I’ll call you after I get the tickets. ’ (‘I’ll call you’ makes sense all by itself. ‘after I get the tickets’ needs additional information)

Dependent Clauses � Dependent clauses can function as either nouns, adjectives or adverbs: ◦ Noun clause: �‘That I don’t believe you should concern you. ’ �I can’t believe that it’s already Christmas! ◦ Adjective clause: �‘That woman who is waving is my mother. ’ �‘That woman, who is waving, is my mother. ’ ◦ Adverb clause: �‘After the match was won, the fans celebrated in the streets. ’ �The fans celebrated in the streets after the match was won. ’

Sentences � Four kinds of sentences: ◦ Simple (a single independent clause) ◦ Compound (two independent clauses joined by a coordinator) ◦ Complex (one dependent clause connected to an independent clause by a subordinator) ◦ Compound-Complex (a sentence containing at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses)

Simple Sentences �A single independent clause � An independent clause, at minimum, has a subject, a tensed verb and makes sense: ◦ ‘Jesus wept. ’ (S+Vi) � However, an independent clause may have ◦ two subjects: ‘Jack and Jill went up the hill. ’ (S+S+Vi) ◦ two verbs: ‘Mary both swims and plays football. ’ (S+Vi+Vt) ◦ an adverbial: ‘Derek reads slowly. ’ (S+Vi+Adv) or ‘Before the wedding, the bride got sloshed!’ (Adv Ph+ S+Vl + C) ◦ Etc.

Compound Sentences independent clauses joined by a coordinator. � Coordinators join two things of equal value: � Two ◦ For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so and ; . � ‘Compound sentences contain two independent clauses, and they are connected by a coordinator. ’ � ‘Because they are of equal value and because one independent clause introduces a second independent clause, the first clause is set off by a comma and is followed by a coordinator. ’ � Any time any word, phrase or clause precedes the main clause, that word, phrase or clause is set off by a comma: ◦ ‘Unsurprisingly, nobody valued vomit as sidewalk art. ’

Complex Sentences independent clause joined to a dependent clause by a subordinator. � An ◦ ‘I decided not to go (as the weather took a turn for the worse). ’ ◦ ‘(Because the exam was so important to his grade), Jerry studied all night. ’ � Subordinating conjunctions link independent clauses to noun, adjective or adverb clauses; therefore, subordinators are numerous.

Compound-Complex Sentences least two independent clauses linked to one or more subordinate clauses: � At ◦ (I wanted to travel) (after I graduated); (however, I had to go to work immediately). ◦ ‘Sir Thomas, meanwhile, went on with his own hopes, and his own observations, still feeling a right, by all his knowledge of human nature, to expect to see the effect of the loss of power and consequence, on his niece’s spirits, and the past attentions of the lover producing a craving for their return; and he was soon afterwards able to account for his not yet completely and indubitably seeing all of this, by the prospect of another visitor, whose approach he could allow to be quite enough to support the spirits he was watching’ (Mansfield Park, 249).

Subordinators for Noun Clauses � That clauses: ◦ ‘Do you believe (something) (that we can‘t get into the concert)? ’ � If/whether clauses: ◦ ‘I can’t remember (something) (if I locked the door). ’ ◦ Whether, whether…or not, if…or not � Question (word) clauses: ◦ We should ask when the train leaves. ◦ Who, whoever, whom, which, what, where, when, why, how much, how many, how long, how often, etc.

Subordinators for Adj. Clauses � To refer to people: who, whom, whose � To refer to animals and things: which, that � To refer to a time or place: when, where ◦ ‘People (who live in glass houses) shouldn’t throw stones. ’ ◦ ‘My new computer, (which I just bought), has just crashed!’ ◦ The library is a place (where they store books).

Subordinators for Adv. Clauses � Time (when? ) after, as, just as, as long as, before, since, until, whenever, while � Place (where? ) where, wherever, anywhere everywhere � Manner (how? ) as, just as, as if, as though � Distance (how far or near or close? ) as + adv + as � Frequency (how often? ) as often as � Reason (why? ) as, because, since � Purpose (for what purpose? ) so that, in order that � Result (with what result? ) so + adj + that, so + adv + that, such a(n) + noun + that, so much/many/little/few + noun + that � Condition (under what condition? ) if, unless � Concession (partial contrast) although, even though, though � Contrast (direct opposition) while, whereas

Correlative Conjunctions � Both…and: Both my sister and my brother have chicken pox. � Not only…but also: Not only do they have jobs but also have inheritances. � Either…or: Bring either a raincoat or an umbrella as the rain is lashing. � Neither…nor: My grandfather could neither read nor write. � Whether…or: I am going early whether you like it or not.

Conjunctive Adverbs � People whose professional activity lies in the field of politics are not, on the whole, conspicuous for their respect for factual accuracy; in other words, Politicians often lie. ◦ ◦ ◦ To To To add a similar idea: also, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover add an unexpected or surprising continuation: however, nevertheless, nonetheless, still add a complete contrast: in contrast, on the other hand add a result: as a result, consequently, therefore, thus list ideas in order of time: meanwhile, afterward, then, subsequently give an example: for example, for instance show similarity: similarly, likewise recommend the value of one assertion over another: instead, on the contrary, rather offer an alternative possibility: alternatively, on the other hand add an explanation: in other words, that is emphasise a point: indeed, in fact

Commas • Anything that precedes the main clause is usually set off by a comma: ‘Because the exam was so important to his grade, Jerry studied all night. ’ • When joining two independent clauses with a coordinator, place a comma after the first clause: ‘Tommy went to the shop, but he forgot to bring his wallet. ’ • Commas are used to signify parenthetical information: ‘The woman, waving her hand, is my mother. ’ Similarly: ‘My brother, Johnny, is an electrician. ’ • Commas separate items in a series: ‘Give me a quarterpounder with pickles, onions and cheese (pickles, onions, and cheese in American English).

Semi-colon � Like the coordinator, the semi-colon separates things of equal value: ◦ My father was a teacher; his father was a teacher. ◦ Table 5 ordered a chicken Caesar with chicken, no onions and blue-cheese dressing; a bottle of sparkling water, an aperitif and a glass of Burgundy; and a lemon-ice, an expresso and a pony of Anisette for dessert.

Colon � The colon should introduce examples or elaborations: ◦ "Grammar Girl has two favorite hobbies: watching clouds and seeing how long she can stand on one foot. " - See more at: http: //www. quickanddirtytips. com/education/grammar/colons#sthash. hdh 4 BMiu. dpuf ◦ All three of their children are involved in the arts: Richard is a sculptor, Diane is a pianist, and Julie is a theatre director. ◦ In a play: �“FRANCISCO: You come most carefully upon your hour. �BERNARDO: 'Tis now struck twelve; get thee to bed, Francisco. ” ◦ Telling time: 10: 25 am ◦ Ratios: 3: 1 ◦ Main point is presented in a sentence: the ideas placed after the colon follow logically from or elaborate on the main point.

Other punctuation? � Ellipses � Exclamations � Questions � Dashes � Parentheses � Forward/backward slashes � http: //www. grammarbook. com/punctuation_ rules. asp

Spelling � http: //www. oxforddictionaries. com/words/sp elling-rules-and-tips � https: //www. logicofenglish. com/resources/s pelling-rules � Spell-check

Capitalisation � http: //www. oxforddictionaries. com/words/us ing-capital-letters � http: //www. grammarbook. com/punctuation/ capital. asp