School Years BeirneSmith et al Mental Retardation Seventh
School Years Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Key Components • • • Free, Appropriate Public Education Appropriate Evaluation Individualized Education Program (IEP) Least Restrictive Environment Parent and Student Participation in Decision Making • Procedural Safeguards Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Evolution of Service Delivery • Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (EHA, PL 94 -142), first stipulated that education should be provided in the least restrictive environment • Amendments continue to allow for a continuum of options • the history of special education is one of progressive inclusion Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Setting Options • Regular Class (General Education) – Instructional Supports – Personnel Supports – Itinerant Services • Resource Room (Pull-Out) – students remain in the general education classroom for the majority of the school day and receive supplemental instruction on a regularly scheduled basis in the resource room. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Setting Options • Separate Class (Self-Contained) – designed for children who cannot keep up with the pace of instruction in a general education classroom or for whom the nature of the curricular content is not appropriate – such placement can be debilitating in its potential to stigmatize the student or discourage the development of social relationships with peers Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Setting Options • Separate Facilities – sole purpose is to serve students with disabilities. It is possible to control for all the variables in the learning environment—scheduling, physical facilities, instructional climate, and so forth – presents an unrealistic picture of the world and eliminates the benefits that students gain through modeling and socialization with their peers. Such gains can be substantial, and as a result, few public school districts continue to have separate facilities for students whose academic and behavioral needs are not severe. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Setting Options • Separate Residential Facilities – For students who have educational and social disabilities so pronounced as to warrant round-theclock attention – Very low pupil/staff ratios, which benefit the students by allowing intensive instruction and support. – No opportunity to interact with peers who are not disabled. – Many of these individuals have behavioral disorders or physical conditions that demand close attention Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Setting Options • Home/Hospital Environments – usually considered more temporary settings for those students who are unable to participate in other settings, often due to illness or injury – itinerant or general education teachers usually furnish the instruction Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Focus on Inclusion • Mainstreaming – Placing students with disabilities in the general education classroom (physical integration) to the extent appropriate to their needs. – Most utilized resource rooms – The special educator assumed primary responsibility for the education of students who were mainstreamed Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Focus on Inclusion • Inclusion – students with disabilities are welcomed and embraced as participating and contributing members of the general education classroom. – general educator assumes primary responsibility for the education of students who are included – placement is made even if the student requires a different curriculum Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Inclusion Opponents Say • diluting or eliminating hard-won services for students who had been poorly served in or excluded from general education programs without analysis of what will happen is dangerous • many parents, students, and general and special education teachers are satisfied with the continuum of services • the potential of the general education system to serve students with disabilities is untested. • the necessary resources and supports and services required to serve these students appropriately in general education settings currently are not available Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Inclusion Proponents Say • special education techniques are not “special, ” • separate classes have not been found to be better • the social benefits of being with peers are paramount • placement in alternative settings is a violation of the students’ civil rights Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
IEP Goals and Objectives • Goals – Broader long, term outcome statements • Behavioral Objectives – statements that specify an observable behavior, the conditions under which it will occur, and the acceptable standard for accuracy against which to measure performance Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
IEP Progress Monitoring • Measure learner progress on a daily basis • Use the results of the evaluation to make teaching decisions. • Test what is taught • Progress (or lack of progress) signals the teacher when to move on to more complex objectives, when to repeat instruction, or when to change instructional objectives, methods, materials, and activities. • Often, the simplest procedures (e. g. , recording the number of correct and incorrect oral responses) provide the teacher with the most accurate indication of learner progress. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Programming for Elementary. Age Learners Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Implications of Learning Characteristics • External Locus of Control – students must acquire skills that are adaptive and functional, so that they actually achieve a measure of control over their environment. – instruction should teach the students to associate their actions with their consequences and then to anticipate probable consequences so that they can choose appropriate behaviors Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Implications of Learning Characteristics • Expectancy for failure – set reasonable, achievable goals and objectives based on the student’s demonstrated level of performance/functioning across skill areas. – structure the instructional program for success by breaking down objectives into small learning steps (via task analysis) and using a rich schedule of positive reinforcements. – reward effort and improvement along with reaching criterion. – teach students to use overt (i. e. , spoken aloud) or covert (i. e. , progressive whispers, inner talking, or thoughts) self-talk to monitor or reinforce their own behavior. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Implications of Learning Characteristics • Outer-directedness – reward more self-directed behaviors such as actively asking the teacher for help or independently identifying several possible solutions to the problem and then trying each one until the solution is reached Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Teaching Goals • Acquiring a Wide Variety of Adaptive Behaviors • Learning When and Where to Use the Skills • Generalizing Adaptive Behaviors to Other Appropriate Settings • Maintaining the Performance of New Behaviors/Skills over Time • Selecting Functional Behaviors Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Selecting Functional Skills • • • skill clusters or activities needed to function in a variety of settings skill clusters or activities needed in the near future skill clusters or activities preferred by the student skill clusters that are critical, essential, or of high priority to this student (or family) in terms of adult areas of functioning skill clusters that are critical to the student’s health and safety activities that promote increased independence and interdependence in inclusive community settings activities that contribute to the student’s happiness, acceptance by others, and personal life satisfaction avoid activities that can only be taught with great difficulty avoid activities that have questionable future value or are ageinappropriate (AAMR, 1992, pp. 130– 131) Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Collaborative Efforts • Collaborative teaming – an ongoing process whereby educators with different areas of expertise voluntarily work together to create solutions to problems that are impeding students’ success, as well as to carefully monitor and refine these solutions • Collaborative consultation – an interactive process that enables people with diverse expertise to generate creative solutions to mutually defined problems Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Collaborative Efforts • Parity – all members are accorded equal status; no single individual is viewed as the expert, and all contributions are judged solely on their merit as a feasible solution to the problem • Reciprocity – allowing all parties to have equal access to information and the opportunity to participate in problem identification, discussion, decision making and all final outcomes Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Collaborative Approaches • • collaboration-consultation peer support systems teacher assistance teams co-teaching Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Curricular Considerations • A comprehensive curriculum – Responds to the needs of the individual student at the current time. – Accommodates the concurrent needs for maximum interaction with nondisabled peers, provides access to the general education curriculum, and gives attention to crucial curricular needs that are absent from the general education curriculum. – Develops from a realistic appraisal of potential adult outcomes of individual students. – Remains sensitive to graduation goals and specific diploma track requirements – Polloway et al. (2001), p. 165 Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Curricular Choices • general education curriculum without supports/accommodations • general education curriculum with supports/accommodations • special education curriculum with a focus on academic and social skill development or remediation • special education curriculum with a focus on adult outcomes Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Academic Supports • Tutorial assistance • Teaching learning strategies • Cooperative teaching – General Educator & Special Educator Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Special Education with Academic Focus • basic skills remedial approach – Focuses on traditional academic skills – May overlook important social aspects • social skills remedial model – Focuses on social competence – Few proven approaches Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Instructional Considerations • • • Effective, efficient classroom management sense of “positiveness” in the school environment appropriate instructional match The degree to which teaching goals and teacher expectations for student performance and success are stated clearly and understood by the student. Clearly presented lessons following specific instructional procedures Availability of instructional support Efficient use of instructional time High opportunity to learn Active monitoring of student progress and understanding Appropriate evaluation of student performance Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Programming for Secondary-Age Learners Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Settings and Curriculum • Many students with mental retardation at the secondary level will spend an appreciable amount of their day in some type of special education or other setting. • The curricular challenge for student with mental retardation at the secondary level is to balance the IDEA requirement to provide access to the general education curriculum while addressing the functional needs of students. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Transition • Planning for postschool adjustment • Comprehensive transition planning – assessing needs – developing individual plans – carrying out the plans – involving key personnel from the receiving environments Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Transition Goals • the acquisition of important knowledge and skills • the linkage to essential supports and services in the community Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Transition Process • Needs Assessment – Published instruments are available – Student input is paramount • Goal Development – Important to consider all adult domains and not just the employment/education area – Domains: • communication, community involvement, daily living, employment, financial/income management, health (physical and emotional), independent living, leisure/recreation, personal/interpersonal relationships, postsecondary education, self-determination, transportation/mobility, and vocational training Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Vocational Preparation Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Key Features • adequate program objectives • provision of counseling services • a distinct stage for developing specific general job and vocational skills Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Program Objectives • A continuing career profile of the student’s skills and interests • To engage each student in actual or direct paid job experiences and activities • The development of entry-level vocational skills for every student • To provide job placement and follow-up services for students who have completed or will complete the preparation program Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Counseling and Skill Development • Rehabilitation counseling may be a related service • Job availability in the community should be studied • Jobs should be analyzed to determine what skills are necessary • Students should have a thorough vocational evaluation completed to determine aptitudes and abilities. • Students should be trained on the basis of their present skill level, Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Counseling and Skill Development • their interests, and projected job availability. • Following training, students should be placed on permanent job sites. • Worker and employer should receive follow-up services that identify potential problem areas and provide interventions to ameliorate or minimize the consequences of these problems. • Program evaluation should be conducted Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Vocational Training Options Vocational Education • coursework found at the secondary level designed to prepare students for gainful employment as skilled or semiskilled workers • composed of seven occupational areas: agriculture; business and office, health occupations, marketing; family and consumer sciences (i. e. , home economics), trade and industry, and technology and technical education (i. e. , industrial arts). • modifications needed for students with intellectual disabilities Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Vocational Training Options Work-Based Learning Experiences • • • cooperative education student internship programs youth apprenticeship programs school-based enterprises job shadowing activities Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Vocational Training Options School-to-Work Programs • School-to-Work Opportunities Act (1994) – intended to prepare all students for work and further education – provides a variety of school- and work-based learning opportunities, along with a coordinated set of connecting activities Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Vocational Training Options Supported Employment/Workplace Supports • Individual Placement model – Job coach provides on-the-job support • Mobile Work Crew model – Individuals work in groups that travel from one work site to another. The supervisor is usually an employee of a supported employment agency. • Enclave model – Human service workers remain in integrated, competitive work settings permanently to provide supervision • Entrepreneurial model – Human service workers remain in non-profit work settings permanently to provide supervision Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Vocational Assessment • Written tests – Aptitude Tests – Interest Inventories • Observation of work samples • Interviews – The interviewer should attempt to verify the interviewee’s statements through the use of follow-up and parent interviews, or rating scales, with special attention given to any discrepancies in the data from the various sources. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Vocational Placement and Follow-up • Make as many personal contacts with local employers as possible. • Use local clubs to advertise your program, as well as to secure information concerning placement sites. • Become more selective in the use of job sites as the program grows. • Consider employers an integral part of the program. Use them at different levels of the program—for example, the prevocational as well as the vocational level. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Vocational Placement and Follow-up • Obtain information from such resources as state job service centers, the state division of vocational rehabilitation, and the local Chamber of Commerce and job-training partnership program. • Program personnel should review the budget to ensure that job placement concerns are receiving the most favorable level of funding Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Programming for Elementary-Age Learners • Key elements of effective instruction should be characteristic of interventions. • Educational programs for students with mental retardation involve a number of interrelated and mutually influencing factors. • Curricular considerations in planning educational programs for students with mental retardation are very important. • Ten instructional variables should be considered in designing effective programs. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Programming for Elementary-Age Learners • Key elements of effective instruction should be characteristic of interventions. • Educational programs for students with mental retardation involve a number of interrelated and mutually influencing factors. • Curricular considerations in planning educational programs for students with mental retardation are very important. • Ten instructional variables should be considered in designing effective programs. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Programming for Elementary-Age Learners • Key elements of effective instruction should be characteristic of interventions. • Educational programs for students with mental retardation involve a number of interrelated and mutually influencing factors. • Curricular considerations in planning educational programs for students with mental retardation are very important. • Ten instructional variables should be considered in designing effective programs. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Programming for Elementary-Age Learners • Key elements of effective instruction should be characteristic of interventions. • Educational programs for students with mental retardation involve a number of interrelated and mutually influencing factors. • Curricular considerations in planning educational programs for students with mental retardation are very important. • Ten instructional variables should be considered in designing effective programs. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Programming for Secondary–Age Learners • Secondary students with mental retardation are likely to be found in a number of educational settings. • Transition planning for the post-school needs of students with disabilities has been targeted as a top national priority. • A variety of assessment techniques yield information that can be useful for transition planning. • Vocational preparation for secondary students involves vocational assessment, vocational training, vocational placement and follow-up, and educational programming issues. Beirne-Smith et al. Mental Retardation, Seventh Edition (c) 2006 by Pearson Education. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
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