RunTime Environments CS 308 Compiler Theory 1 RunTime

Run-Time Environments CS 308 Compiler Theory 1

Run-Time Environments • How do we allocate the space for the generated target code and the data object of our source programs? • The places of the data objects that can be determined at compile time will be allocated statically. • But the places for the some of data objects will be allocated at run-time. • The allocation and de-allocation of the data objects is managed by the run-time support package. – run-time support package is loaded together with the generate target code. – the structure of the run-time support package depends on the semantics of the programming language (especially the semantics of procedures in that language). • Each execution of a procedure is called as activation of that procedure. CS 308 Compiler Theory 2

Static vs. Dynamic Allocation • Static: Compile time, Dynamic: Runtime allocation • Many compilers use some combination of following – Stack storage: for local variables, parameters and so on – Heap storage: Data that may outlive the call to the procedure that created it • Stack allocation is a valid allocation for procedures since procedure calls are nested

Procedure Activations • An execution of a procedure starts at the beginning of the procedure body; • When the procedure is completed, it returns the control to the point immediately after the place where that procedure is called. • Each execution of a procedure is called as its activation. • Lifetime of an activation of a procedure is the sequence of the steps between the first and the last steps in the execution of that procedure (including the other procedures called by that procedure). • If a and b are procedure activations, then their lifetimes are either nonoverlapping or are nested. • If a procedure is recursive, a new activation can begin before an earlier activation of the same procedure has ended. CS 308 Compiler Theory 4

Activation Tree • We can use a tree (called activation tree) to show the way control enters and leaves activations. • In an activation tree: – Each node represents an activation of a procedure. – The root represents the activation of the main program. – The node a is a parent of the node b iff the control flows from a to b. – The node a is left to the node b iff the lifetime of a occurs before the lifetime of b. CS 308 Compiler Theory 5

Activation Tree (cont. ) enter main enter p enter q exit q enter s exit p enter s exit main program main; procedure s; begin. . . end; procedure p; procedure q; begin. . . end; begin q; s; end; begin p; s; end; A Nested Structure CS 308 Compiler Theory 6

Activation Tree (cont. ) main p q s s CS 308 Compiler Theory 7

Control Stack • The flow of the control in a program corresponds to a depth-first traversal of the activation tree that: – starts at the root, – visits a node before its children, and – recursively visits children at each node in a left-to-right order. • A stack (called control stack) can be used to keep track of live procedure activations. – An activation record is pushed onto the control stack as the activation starts. – That activation record is popped when that activation ends. • When node n is at the top of the control stack, the stack contains the nodes along the path from n to the root. CS 308 Compiler Theory 8

Variable Scopes • The same variable name can be used in the different parts of the program. • The scope rules of the language determine which declaration of a name applies when the name appears in the program. • An occurrence of a variable (a name) is: – local: If that occurrence is in the same procedure in which that name is declared. – non-local: Otherwise (ie. it is declared outside of that procedure) procedure p; var b: real; procedure p; var a: integer; begin a : = 1; b : = 2; end; begin. . . end; CS 308 Compiler Theory a is local b is non-local 9

Run-Time Storage Organization Code Static Data Stack Heap Memory locations for code are determined at compile time. Locations of static data can also be determined at compile time. Data objects allocated at run-time. (Activation Records) Other dynamically allocated data objects at run-time. (For example, malloc area in C). CS 308 Compiler Theory 10

Activation Records • Information needed by a single execution of a procedure is managed using a contiguous block of storage called activation record. • An activation record is allocated when a procedure is entered, and it is de-allocated when that procedure exited. • Size of each field can be determined at compile time (Although actual location of the activation record is determined at run-time). – Except that if the procedure has a local variable and its size depends on a parameter, its size is determined at the run time. CS 308 Compiler Theory 11

Activation Records (cont. ) return value The returned value of the called procedure is returned in this field to the calling procedure. In practice, we may use a machine register for the return value. actual parameters The field for actual parameters is used by the calling procedure to supply parameters to the called procedure. optional control link The optional control link points to the activation record of the caller. optional access link saved machine status local data temporaries The optional access link is used to refer to nonlocal data held in other activation records. The field for saved machine status holds information about the state of the machine before the procedure is called. The field of local data holds data that local to an execution of a procedure. . Temporay variables is stored in the field of temporaries. CS 308 Compiler Theory 12

Activation records • Procedure calls and returns are usaully managed by a run-time stack called the control stack. • Each live activation has an activation record (sometimes called a frame) • The root of activation tree is at the bottom of the stack • The current execution path specifies the content of the stack with the last activation has record in the top of the stack.

Activation Records (Ex 1) main program main; procedure p; var a: real; procedure q; var b: integer; begin. . . end; begin q; end; procedure s; var c: integer; begin. . . end; begin p; s; end; stack p a: main p q s b: q CS 308 Compiler Theory 14

Activation Records for Recursive Procedures program main; procedure p; function q(a: integer): integer; begin if (a=1) then q: =1; else q: =a+q(a-1); end; begin q(3); end; begin p; end; main p q(3) a: 3 q(2) a: 2 q(1) a: 1 CS 308 Compiler Theory 15

Creation of An Activation Record • Who allocates an activation record of a procedure? – Some part of the activation record of a procedure is created by that procedure immediately after that procedure is entered. – Some part is created by the caller of that procedure before that procedure is entered. • Who deallocates? – Callee de-allocates the part allocated by Callee. – Caller de-allocates the part allocated by Caller. CS 308 Compiler Theory 16

Creation of An Activation Record (cont. ) return value Caller’s Activation Record actual parameters optional control link optional access link saved machine status local data temporaries Caller’s Responsibility return value Callee’s Activation Record actual parameters optional control link optional access link saved machine status local data Callee’s Responsibility temporaries CS 308 Compiler Theory 17

Variable Length Data actual parameters return value optional control link optional access link saved machine status Variable length data is allocated after temporaries, and there is a link from local data to that array. local data pointer b temporaries array a array b CS 308 Compiler Theory 18

Dangling Reference • Whenever a storage is de-allocated, the problem of dangling references may accur. main () { int *p; p = dangle(); } int *dangle*() { int i=2; return &i; } CS 308 Compiler Theory 19

Designing Calling Sequences • Values communicated between caller and callee are generally placed at the beginning of callee’s activation record • Fixed-length items: are generally placed at the middle • Items whose size may not be known early enough: are placed at the end of activation record • We must locate the top-of-stack pointer judiciously: a common approach is to have it point to the end of fixed length fields.

Division of tasks between caller and callee

calling sequence • The caller evaluates the actual parameters • The caller stores a return address and the old value of top-sp into the callee's activation record. • The callee saves the register values and other status information. • The callee initializes its local data and begins execution.

corresponding return sequence • The callee places the return value next to the parameters • Using information in the machine-status field, the callee restores top-sp and other registers, and then branches to the return address that the caller placed in the status field. • Although top-sp has been decremented, the caller knows where the return value is, relative to the current value of top-sp; the caller therefore may use that value.

Access to dynamically allocated arrays