Robert J Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 1 of 15 Chapter 1 What Is Psychology?

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 2 of 15 Psychology as a Natural Science and a Social Science • 心理學研究什麼 ? – Mental process<-> behavior • 心理學的研究對象是…… ? • Natural Science - Laws of Nature • Social Science • Other Disciplines – Biology, computer science – Sociology, anthropology, …….

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 3 of 15 Key Themes in the Evolution of Psychological Thought • Dialectic - Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis • 以心理學家對「智力」的看法為例 – 20世紀早期: 生物因素 – 60及70年代: 環境因素 – 20世紀末期: 兩者互動 • 思想的演進並不是一個全然線性的歷程

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 8 of 15 Early Psychological Approaches to Behavior • Associationism: Early ideas about learning – 聯結主義：事件或概念如何在人類的心智中被聯繫在一起，然 後產生一種學習。 – Hermann Ebbibghaus, Edward Lee Thorndike – Ebbinghaus(1850 -1909) : 記憶研究，使用嚴格實驗技術的一 個先驅 – Thorndike(1874 -1949)的效果率(law of effect): 當有機體的某個 行為被酬賞了，這個行為就被強化了，即會增加此行為在未來 被表現的機會。

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 9 of 15 Table 1. 2 Early Psychological Perspectives. To this day, psychological research continues to reflect its roots in structuralism (focusing on basic psychological structures) and its functionalism (focusing on the process of thinking and feeling).

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 10 of 15 Psychology in the Twentieth Century I • From Associationism to Behaviorism – Ivan Pavlov(1849 -1936) and the discovery of classically conditioned learning • Behaviorism: Search for Rigor and Reduction – 強調心理學應該要完全客觀。為了達到此目的，所以應該要研究可以觀 察的行為。 – John Watson(1878 -1958) and radical behaviorism – Skinner's experimental analysis of behavior • 反應式行為(Respondent)：Pavlov研究的非自主行為，會被特定的 刺激所引發。 • 操作式行為(Operant)：大多為自主行為，不是簡單地或確定可以引 發的行為。但行為之後如果伴隨強化物(reinforcer)，則該行為的表 現機率可以被提升。

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 11 of 15 Psychology in the Twentieth Century I • Gestalt Psychology: The Whole Is Different from the Sum of Its Parts – Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler – 要了解心理現象，最好的方式是將之視為一個有組織、結構 化的整體，而不是把它分割成無數的成分元素來加以分析。 – 起源於德國，是作為結構主義及行為主義的反對勢力而興起的。 • Cognitivism: How We Think as a Key to How We Behave – 早期的代表人物: Ulric Neisser, Jean Piaget – Serial and parallel processing

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 12 of 15 Psychology in the Twentieth Century II • Current Frontiers: Biological Psychology--The Mind and the Body Reconciled? – Neurobiology – Behavior genetics and molecular genetics – Biopsychosocial approach • Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding the Adaptive Value of Certain Behaviors – 用演化適應性的角度來解釋行為傾向

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 13 of 15 Psychology in the Twentieth Century III • • Psychodynamic Psychology: Conscious Behavior as the Tip of the Iceberg – Sigmund Freud(1856 -1839) – 強調：潛意識裡各種衝突的心理歷程的重要性、童年早期經驗 的重要性。 – 本我、自我、超我 – 新佛洛醫德學派 Humanistic Psychology: Free Will and the Importance of Human Potential – Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers – Holistic, self actualization, unconditional positive regard

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 15 of 15 Psychology as a Field of Study • Perspective versus Field – Psychobiology – Cognitive psychology – Developmental psychology – Neuropsychology – Social psychology – Personality psychology – Clinical psychology – 諮商心理學 – 商心理學 • New Specialties

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 16 of 15 Table 1. 4 Career Options for Psychologists. The study of psychology can prove valuable for any career path. Here are some of the options available to persons who pursue degrees in psychology.

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 17 of 15 Chapter 2 Research Methods In Psychology

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 18 of 15 Characteristics of Scientific Findings • Scientific Findings Are Verifiable – Replicate – Reliable and valid – Accurately reported • Scientific Findings Are Public – Scientific journals – Citations in textbooks • Scientific Findings Are Cumulative

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 19 of 15 Table 2. 1 Three Characteristics of Valid Scientific Research. Scientist’s use various methods for obtaining data and formulating theories which have these three characteristics.

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 20 of 15 What Scientific Research Is Not • Misconception 1: Scientific Findings Are Valid Forever. – Fact: Scientists are products of their times. • Misconception 2: Scientific Research Is Always Conducted in a Certain Way. – Fact: Scientific processes must suit the situation. • Misconception 3: Scientific Research Is Always Perfectly Objective. – Fact: Scientists are influenced by human values. • Misconception 4: Science Is Merely a Collection of Facts. – Fact: Scientific interpretation makes facts meaningful.

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 21 of 15 How Scientists Solve Problems • Identifying the Problem • Defining the Problem – Operational definition – Hypothetical construct • Formulating Hypotheses • Constructing a Problem-Solving Strategy • Monitoring and Evaluating Problem Solving

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 22 of 15 Table 2. 2 Four Primary Goals of Psychological Research. Psychologists seek to achieve one or more of these goals in their research.

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 23 of 15 The Goals of Scientific Research • • Description Explanation Prediction Control

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 24 of 15 Figure 2. 2 Spatial-Rotation and Spatial-Location Task. Women tend to perform better in spatial-location tasks. After memorizing the diagram at the top left, they tend to be better at recalling what object appeared in the cell marked with an X (in this case, a banana). Men tend to do better at spatial-rotation tasks. They are better able to say what a given object would look like if rotated into various spatial orientations.

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 25 of 15 The Unity of Psychology: Researchers and Practitioners Use Similar Methods • Researcher – Identify and define problem – Formulate hypothesis – Strategy for empirical investigation • Psychotherapist – Identify client problem and define presenting symptoms – Formulate hypothesis – Strategy for treating client • Scientist-practitioners

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 26 of 15 Research Methods in Psychology • Naturalistic Observation – 又稱為田野研究(field study)。即到一個「場」(真實的情 境)去觀察及紀錄人們的日常活動。 – Advantage - wide applicability、與真實生活的貼近性 – Disadvantage - uncontrolled, influence on behavior • Case Studies (個案研究) – 針對一個人或一個團體進行密集的探究 – Advantage - much detail – Disadvantage - generalizability and reliability

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 27 of 15 Research Methods in Psychology • Tests, Questionnaires, and Surveys – Advantage - easily administered, scored, and analyzed – Disadvantage - complex interpretation, generalizability, differences between results and actual behavior

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 28 of 15 Table 2. 3 Research Methods. To achieve their goals, psychologists may use various methods of investigation.

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 29 of 15 Research Methods in Psychology • Experiments (實驗法) – 藉由控制及操弄變項來探究因果關係的研究 – Experimental methods - cause and effect – Independent variables and dependent variables – Experimental conditions and control conditions • Evaluating and Interpreting Research Data – Representative samples • random sample and convenience sample – Statistical analysis • sample statistics • statistical significance • null hypothesis

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 30 of 15 Table 2. 4 Experimental Designs. Psychologists draw different conclusions from their research, depending on the type of research design they use for studying a given phenomena.

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 31 of 15 Causal Inference in Psychological Research • Controlled and Quasi-Experimental Designs – Causal inferences – Design – Random assignment • Correlational Designs – No causal inferences – Correlation - degree of statistical relationship • Negative (inverse) correlation • Positive correlation

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 32 of 15 Figure 2. 2 Graphic Representation of a Correlation. This graph shows a positive correlation between a pair of variables.

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 33 of 15 Critical Thinking in Psychological Research • The Nature of Critical Thinking – Dispositions and abilities • Informal Fallacies that Prevent Critical Thinking – Irrelevant conclusion – Composition – Personalization – False cause – Ad hominem argument • Critical Thinking Traps – Egocentrism, omniscience, omnipotence, invulnerability

Robert J. Sternberg Psychology 4 th Edition Chapter 1: What is Psychology? Page 34 of 15 Research Ethics • • • Deception, Informed Consent, and Debriefing Pain Confidentiality Issues in Research with Nonhuman Animals The Role of the Institutional Review Board